Expected schooling
Expected years of schooling
Link with national income+0.81essentially a measure of national income
Links that hold up20of 158 pairs tested
Unityearshigher is better
SourceUNDP_HDRCC BY 3.0 IGO
What this measures. The years a child starting school today can expect to spend in it, if current enrolment rates hold. It is a forecast built from the same UNESCO enrolment figures the site already has, so it moves with them.
How it has moved
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Every country, every year
One row per country and one column per year, sorted by the most recent value. Hover over any cell to see the figure. The country names link to each country’s page.
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Links that hold up
r is how closely two measures rise and fall together across countries, from −1 (opposite) to +1 (in step), where 0 means no link. These pairs are ranked by the link after adjusting for national income, which means comparing countries with the same GDP per person. Each pair passed three checks. The link held after that adjustment. It was unlikely to be chance (q of 0.05 or less), even allowing for countries in the same region being alike and for the many pairs tested. And the two are not just two measures of the same thing. Very small q values are written in short form: 8.0e-5 means 0.000080.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expected schooling and Secondary enrollmentWhere Expected schooling is higher, Secondary enrollment tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Secondary enrollment by country | +0.84 | +0.59 | 0.003 | 179 | high |
| Expected schooling and Gender Inequality IndexWhere Expected schooling is higher, Gender Inequality Index tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Inequality Index by country | -0.81 | -0.41 | 0.020 | 169 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Fixed broadbandWhere Expected schooling is higher, Fixed broadband tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fixed broadband by country | +0.78 | +0.37 | 0.015 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Infrastructure scoreWhere Expected schooling is higher, Infrastructure score tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infrastructure score by country | +0.81 | +0.36 | 0.030 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Health spendingWhere Expected schooling is higher, Health spending tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Health spending by country | +0.35 | +0.35 | 0.044 | 186 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Population 65+Where Expected schooling is higher, Population 65+ tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 65+ by country | +0.72 | +0.34 | 0.012 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and Free and fair electionsWhere Expected schooling is higher, Free and fair elections tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Free and fair elections by country | +0.63 | +0.34 | 0.034 | 167 | high |
| Expected schooling and Rule of lawWhere Expected schooling is higher, Rule of law tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Rule of law by country | +0.70 | +0.33 | 0.040 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and PhysiciansWhere Expected schooling is higher, Physicians tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Physicians by country | +0.74 | +0.32 | 0.025 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Political rights (FH)Where Expected schooling is higher, Political rights (FH) tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Political rights (FH) by country | -0.53 | -0.32 | 0.026 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Civil liberties (FH)Where Expected schooling is higher, Civil liberties (FH) tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Civil liberties (FH) by country | -0.53 | -0.30 | 0.033 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Control of corruptionWhere Expected schooling is higher, Control of corruption tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Control of corruption by country | +0.68 | +0.28 | 0.034 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and Regime typeWhere Expected schooling is higher, Regime type tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Regime type by country | +0.53 | +0.28 | 0.024 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Regulatory qualityWhere Expected schooling is higher, Regulatory quality tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Regulatory quality by country | +0.73 | +0.28 | 0.040 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Corruption Perceptions IndexWhere Expected schooling is higher, Corruption Perceptions Index tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Corruption Perceptions Index by country | +0.68 | +0.28 | 0.046 | 173 | high |
| Expected schooling and Life expectancyWhere Expected schooling is higher, Life expectancy tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life expectancy by country | +0.76 | +0.27 | 0.039 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and One-person householdsWhere Expected schooling is higher, One-person households tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. One-person households by country | +0.66 | +0.26 | 0.023 | 143 | high |
| Expected schooling and Christian shareWhere Expected schooling is higher, Christian share tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Christian share by country | +0.17 | +0.26 | 0.046 | 178 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Government effectivenessWhere Expected schooling is higher, Government effectiveness tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government effectiveness by country | +0.73 | +0.23 | 0.032 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Government spending per capitaComparing only countries with similar income, Government spending per capita tends to be lower where Expected schooling is higher: the opposite of the unadjusted figure, which only showed the income gap between countries. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government spending per capita by country | +0.26 | -0.22 | 0.044 | 43 | proxy |
Links that don’t count as findings
These go together strongly, but they are built from the same numbers or measure the same thing. So they are bound to match, or their match shows that the measures agree, not something about the world.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Expected schooling and HDINot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. HDI by country | +0.88 | +0.72 | 0.002 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Education scoreNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Education score by country | +0.86 | +0.63 | 0.011 | 185 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Inequality-adjusted HDINot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Inequality-adjusted HDI by country | +0.86 | +0.53 | 0.022 | 167 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Gender Development IndexNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Gender Development Index by country | +0.58 | +0.17 | 0.400 | 180 | high |
How much the other measures account for
The 71 most widely reported measures boil down to a few broad patterns. This table shows how much of the differences between countries on this measure those patterns account for, adding one pattern at a time. The patterns are rebuilt without this measure, and without anything built from the same numbers or measuring the same thing. So it never predicts itself under another name. The figures use the 133 countries reporting all of them, and 68 candidate measures.
This shows how much it moves with the others. It does not explain anything. Measures that move together end up on the same pattern whether or not anything connects them. And the countries here are the best-documented ones. A high figure means this measure is largely predictable from the others, not that they produce it.
| Patterns used | Share of this measure accounted for | Added by this pattern |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 72% | — |
| 2 | 73% | +1% |
| 3 | 73% | +1% |
| 4 | 73% | +0% |
| 5 | 74% | +0% |
| 6 | 74% | +1% |
This measure sits on the pattern all the measures share, which is national income under another name.
How it differs by category
This compares the measure across groups of countries, such as those sharing a main religion, instead of against another number. The figure is the share of the differences between countries on this measure that lies between the groups, on a scale from 0 to 1. It is shown before and after adjusting for national income.
The “between groups” figure runs from 0 (the groups are no different) to 1 (the groups explain all the differences between countries). Groups have no up or down, so this says how much the groups differ, never which way. For that, read the group averages. The figure also tends to rise when there are more groups. So to judge whether it could be chance (q), we shuffle the same labels among the same countries many times and see how often a figure this big turns up. Then we allow for the fact that many measures are checked at once, since with enough checks a few big figures turn up by luck alone. Groups with fewer than 12 countries are left out. And countries that share a label share a lot else. Adjusting for income rules out one third factor, but leaves language, region, legal tradition and history untouched.
| Grouped by | Between groups | After income | q | Groups at each end |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Last European coloniser | 0.43 | 0.21 | 0.186 | best: Spain 14 · worst: France 10.5 years |
| Largest religious group | 0.33 | 0.31 | 0.003 | best: Christians 14.1 · worst: Muslims 12 years |
Every other pair
Everything else this measure was tested against, apart from the links that hold up and the pairs built from the same numbers. Sorted by the link after adjusting. Search by name; every column sorts. A small adjusted figure is a result too. It says the two do not move together once income is set aside.
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| Expected schooling and Tertiary enrollmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.57) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tertiary enrollment by country | +0.82 | +0.57 | 0.071 | 171 | high |
| Expected schooling and Adult literacyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.38) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adult literacy by country | +0.71 | +0.38 | 0.224 | 131 | high |
| Expected schooling and Voice and accountabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.37) could easily be chance. Voice and accountability by country | +0.63 | +0.37 | 0.068 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Mean years of schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Mean years of schooling by country | +0.77 | +0.35 | 0.112 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and ResearchersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Researchers by country | +0.71 | +0.35 | 0.107 | 129 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Health coverage indexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Health coverage index by country | +0.79 | +0.34 | 0.129 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Anaemia in womenLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.34) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Anaemia in women by country | -0.67 | -0.34 | 0.129 | 185 | high |
| Expected schooling and Out of school, primaryLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.34) could easily be chance. Out of school, primary by country | -0.57 | -0.34 | 0.073 | 178 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Liberal democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.31) could easily be chance. Liberal democracy by country | +0.58 | +0.31 | 0.073 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Participatory democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.31) could easily be chance. Participatory democracy by country | +0.55 | +0.31 | 0.085 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Women's age at first marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's age at first marriage by country | +0.37 | +0.31 | 0.103 | 40 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and PISA scienceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA science by country | +0.62 | +0.30 | 0.061 | 85 | high |
| Expected schooling and PISA readingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA reading by country | +0.62 | +0.30 | 0.130 | 85 | high |
| Expected schooling and Median ageLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Median age by country | +0.77 | +0.30 | 0.105 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Electoral democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Electoral democracy by country | +0.53 | +0.30 | 0.082 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Government consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government consumption by country | +0.28 | +0.30 | 0.184 | 168 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Muslim shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Muslim share by country | -0.35 | -0.30 | 0.053 | 178 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Married by 18Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.30) could easily be chance. Married by 18 by country | -0.61 | -0.30 | 0.290 | 134 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Tax revenueCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tax revenue by country | +0.41 | +0.30 | 0.087 | 150 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Corporate tax rateAlmost no link either way. Corporate tax rate by country | -0.06 | +0.30 | 0.106 | 81 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Governance scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.29) could easily be chance. Governance score by country | +0.55 | +0.29 | 0.081 | 170 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Population growthLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.29) could easily be chance. Population growth by country | -0.51 | -0.29 | 0.120 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Birth rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth rate by country | -0.77 | -0.28 | 0.135 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Government expenseCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government expense by country | +0.40 | +0.28 | 0.097 | 150 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Informal employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Informal employment by country | -0.77 | -0.28 | 0.051 | 140 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Infant mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infant mortality by country | -0.73 | -0.28 | 0.081 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Slum share of urban populationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.27) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Slum share of urban population by country | -0.70 | -0.27 | 0.221 | 178 | high |
| Expected schooling and Gender wage gapCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender wage gap by country | -0.29 | -0.27 | 0.112 | 38 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Religion very importantLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.27) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religion very important by country | -0.62 | -0.27 | 0.254 | 104 | high |
| Expected schooling and Education spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education spending by country | +0.21 | +0.27 | 0.092 | 179 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Confidence in religious institutionsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Confidence in religious institutions by country | -0.53 | -0.26 | 0.244 | 104 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Primary enrollmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Primary enrollment by country | +0.14 | +0.26 | 0.076 | 184 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Women's political empowermentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's political empowerment by country | +0.50 | +0.26 | 0.157 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Aid givenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Aid given by country | +0.33 | +0.26 | 0.218 | 47 | high |
| Expected schooling and Under-5 mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.24) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Under-5 mortality by country | -0.71 | -0.24 | 0.166 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Gender scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender score by country | +0.41 | +0.24 | 0.161 | 179 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Population 0-14Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.23) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 0-14 by country | -0.76 | -0.23 | 0.164 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Marriage rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Marriage rate by country | -0.24 | -0.23 | 0.189 | 46 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Fertility rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.23) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fertility rate by country | -0.73 | -0.23 | 0.206 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Religiously unaffiliatedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Religiously unaffiliated by country | +0.47 | +0.23 | 0.070 | 178 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Political corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.23) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Political corruption by country | -0.64 | -0.23 | 0.131 | 167 | high |
| Expected schooling and Youth not in work or studyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.23) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Youth not in work or study by country | -0.55 | -0.23 | 0.130 | 169 | high |
| Expected schooling and Pupil-teacher ratioLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Pupil-teacher ratio by country | -0.70 | -0.22 | 0.055 | 173 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and PISA mathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA maths by country | +0.58 | +0.22 | 0.130 | 85 | high |
| Expected schooling and Freedom of associationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of association by country | +0.35 | +0.22 | 0.249 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Women ministersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women ministers by country | +0.29 | +0.21 | 0.224 | 185 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Skilled birth attendanceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Skilled birth attendance by country | +0.63 | +0.21 | 0.361 | 174 | high |
| Expected schooling and Freedom of expressionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of expression by country | +0.31 | +0.21 | 0.304 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Adolescent fertilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adolescent fertility by country | -0.68 | -0.20 | 0.215 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Civil society participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil society participation by country | +0.28 | +0.20 | 0.253 | 167 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Tobacco useCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tobacco use by country | +0.27 | +0.20 | 0.088 | 164 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Birth registrationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth registration by country | +0.63 | +0.20 | 0.271 | 165 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Religious attendanceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religious attendance by country | -0.62 | -0.20 | 0.271 | 102 | high |
| Expected schooling and Political civil libertiesCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political civil liberties by country | +0.33 | +0.19 | 0.320 | 167 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Public order spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Public order spending by country | -0.35 | -0.18 | 0.689 | 37 | high |
| Expected schooling and Child stuntingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.18) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Child stunting by country | -0.67 | -0.18 | 0.132 | 155 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Active labour market spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Active labour market spending by country | +0.32 | +0.18 | 0.271 | 42 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Interpersonal trustLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.18) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Interpersonal trust by country | +0.54 | +0.18 | 0.318 | 104 | high |
| Expected schooling and Maternal mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.18) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Maternal mortality by country | -0.63 | -0.18 | 0.428 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Out-of-pocket health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out-of-pocket health spending by country | -0.37 | -0.17 | 0.304 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Political stabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.17) could easily be chance. Political stability by country | +0.53 | +0.17 | 0.317 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Women in parliamentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in parliament by country | +0.29 | +0.17 | 0.122 | 185 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Alcohol consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Alcohol consumption by country | +0.48 | +0.17 | 0.193 | 182 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Primary completionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.17) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Primary completion by country | +0.67 | +0.17 | 0.184 | 161 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Migrant share of populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Migrant share of population by country | +0.38 | -0.16 | 0.458 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and Electricity accessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Electricity access by country | +0.64 | +0.15 | 0.285 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and Road traffic deathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Road traffic deaths by country | -0.58 | -0.15 | 0.123 | 183 | high |
| Expected schooling and Unemployment benefit spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment benefit spending by country | +0.18 | +0.14 | 0.396 | 39 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Trade opennessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trade openness by country | +0.26 | -0.14 | 0.371 | 170 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Life satisfactionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.14) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life satisfaction by country | +0.71 | +0.14 | 0.065 | 158 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and DTP3 immunisationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. DTP3 immunisation by country | +0.48 | +0.14 | 0.112 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and CO2 per capitaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. CO2 per capita by country | +0.26 | -0.14 | 0.347 | 182 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Frequent prayerLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.14) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Frequent prayer by country | -0.58 | -0.14 | 0.668 | 76 | high |
| Expected schooling and Refugees originatingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Refugees originating by country | -0.28 | -0.13 | 0.305 | 185 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Basic sanitationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.13) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic sanitation by country | +0.67 | +0.13 | 0.304 | 186 | high |
| Expected schooling and Wellbeing scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.13) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Wellbeing score by country | +0.63 | +0.13 | 0.398 | 104 | high |
| Expected schooling and Compulsory schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Compulsory schooling by country | +0.37 | +0.13 | 0.581 | 177 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and RedistributionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Redistribution by country | +0.39 | +0.13 | 0.339 | 45 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Women in a unionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in a union by country | -0.38 | -0.13 | 0.217 | 181 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Public social spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Public social spending by country | +0.28 | +0.13 | 0.258 | 42 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Marriage rate (UN)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Marriage rate (UN) by country | -0.27 | -0.13 | 0.375 | 94 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Single-parent householdsAlmost no link either way. Single-parent households by country | +0.03 | +0.13 | 0.258 | 143 | independent |
| Expected schooling and InflationAlmost no link either way. Inflation by country | -0.02 | +0.12 | 0.574 | 183 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Female labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Female labor participation by country | +0.12 | +0.12 | 0.056 | 174 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Hours workedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hours worked by country | -0.31 | -0.12 | 0.281 | 38 | high |
| Expected schooling and Old-age spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Old-age spending by country | +0.17 | +0.12 | 0.594 | 42 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Adult obesityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Adult obesity by country | +0.29 | +0.12 | 0.562 | 185 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Internet usersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Internet users by country | +0.72 | +0.11 | 0.127 | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Food insecurityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Food insecurity by country | -0.71 | -0.11 | 0.380 | 155 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Suicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Suicide rate by country | +0.22 | +0.10 | 0.494 | 178 | independent |
| Expected schooling and GDP growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. GDP growth by country | -0.20 | -0.10 | 0.395 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Children with one parentAlmost no link either way. Children with one parent by country | -0.07 | -0.09 | 0.531 | 38 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Agricultural landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Agricultural land by country | -0.15 | +0.09 | 0.187 | 187 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Basic water accessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic water access by country | +0.65 | +0.09 | 0.328 | 186 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Births outside marriageAlmost no link either way. Births outside marriage by country | +0.07 | +0.09 | 0.679 | 42 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Male labor participationAlmost no link either way. Male labor participation by country | -0.05 | -0.09 | 0.156 | 174 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Recycling rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Recycling rate by country | +0.18 | +0.09 | 0.686 | 35 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Environment scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Environment score by country | -0.23 | +0.09 | 0.405 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Market-income GiniCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Market-income Gini by country | -0.15 | +0.09 | 0.691 | 45 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Age at childbearingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Age at childbearing by country | +0.40 | +0.08 | 0.572 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Military spendingAlmost no link either way. Military spending by country | +0.04 | -0.07 | 0.331 | 155 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Divorce rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Divorce rate by country | -0.11 | -0.07 | 0.824 | 45 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Trust in governmentAlmost no link either way. Trust in government by country | +0.07 | -0.07 | 0.412 | 47 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and UndernourishmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Undernourishment by country | -0.63 | -0.07 | 0.511 | 162 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Hospital bedsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hospital beds by country | +0.44 | +0.07 | 0.736 | 171 | high |
| Expected schooling and Premature NCD mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Premature NCD mortality by country | -0.56 | -0.06 | 0.671 | 178 | high |
| Expected schooling and Self-reported happinessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Self-reported happiness by country | +0.22 | -0.06 | 0.691 | 104 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Forest areaAlmost no link either way. Forest area by country | +0.08 | +0.06 | 0.785 | 186 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Armed conflict presentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Armed conflict present by country | -0.34 | -0.06 | 0.753 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and HIV prevalenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. HIV prevalence by country | -0.15 | +0.05 | 0.692 | 148 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Gini indexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gini index by country | -0.26 | -0.05 | 0.621 | 162 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Equality scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Equality score by country | +0.54 | +0.05 | 0.736 | 162 | high |
| Expected schooling and Employment in agricultureLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Employment in agriculture by country | -0.68 | -0.05 | 0.763 | 174 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Pre-trial detainee shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Pre-trial detainee share by country | -0.24 | -0.04 | 0.735 | 164 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Protected landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Protected land by country | +0.20 | +0.04 | 0.798 | 186 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Labour scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Labour score by country | +0.58 | +0.04 | 0.761 | 182 | high |
| Expected schooling and Tuberculosis incidenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tuberculosis incidence by country | -0.42 | -0.04 | 0.751 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and Mobile subscriptionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Mobile subscriptions by country | +0.33 | -0.03 | 0.731 | 187 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Homicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Homicide rate by country | -0.11 | -0.03 | 0.615 | 161 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Vulnerable employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Vulnerable employment by country | -0.68 | -0.03 | 0.862 | 174 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and FDI inflowsAlmost no link either way. FDI inflows by country | +0.01 | -0.03 | 0.851 | 187 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Extreme poverty rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Extreme poverty rate by country | -0.61 | -0.02 | 0.902 | 162 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and Health scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health score by country | +0.25 | +0.02 | 0.925 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Retirement age, menCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, men by country | -0.16 | -0.02 | 0.926 | 49 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Conflict deathsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Conflict deaths by country | -0.10 | +0.01 | 0.884 | 186 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Divorce rate (UN)Almost no link either way. Divorce rate (UN) by country | +0.00 | -0.01 | 0.937 | 86 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Retirement age, womenAlmost no link either way. Retirement age, women by country | -0.05 | +0.01 | 0.950 | 49 | independent |
| Expected schooling and Women in managementCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in management by country | +0.23 | +0.01 | 0.978 | 148 | moderate |
| Expected schooling and Family benefits spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Family benefits spending by country | +0.12 | -0.01 | 0.985 | 42 | independent |
| Expected schooling and UnemploymentAlmost no link either way. Unemployment by country | -0.06 | +0.00 | 0.988 | 174 | independent |
| Expected schooling and UrbanizationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Urbanization by country | +0.50 | +0.00 | 0.998 | 187 | high |
| Expected schooling and GDP per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (PPP) by country | +0.65 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and GNI per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GNI per capita (PPP) by country | +0.67 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
| Expected schooling and GDP per capita (market)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (market) by country | +0.61 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
Source
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office · via Our World in Data
CC BY 3.0 IGO · licence terms · updated annual
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2025