Mean years of schooling
Mean years of schooling, adults aged 25 and over
Link with national income+0.82essentially a measure of national income
Links that hold up12of 158 pairs tested
Unityearshigher is better
SourceUNDP_HDRCC BY 3.0 IGO
What this measures. The schooling adults actually completed, decades ago for most of them. Expected schooling looks ahead at children; this looks back at adults. It is the one to read for the education of the workforce rather than of children.
How it has moved
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Every country, every year
One row per country and one column per year, sorted by the most recent value. Hover over any cell to see the figure. The country names link to each country’s page.
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Links that hold up
r is how closely two measures rise and fall together across countries, from −1 (opposite) to +1 (in step), where 0 means no link. These pairs are ranked by the link after adjusting for national income, which means comparing countries with the same GDP per person. Each pair passed three checks. The link held after that adjustment. It was unlikely to be chance (q of 0.05 or less), even allowing for countries in the same region being alike and for the many pairs tested. And the two are not just two measures of the same thing. Very small q values are written in short form: 8.0e-5 means 0.000080.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean years of schooling and Adult literacyWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Adult literacy tends to be higher: a strong link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adult literacy by country | +0.87 | +0.72 | 0.028 | 131 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Slum share of urban populationWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Slum share of urban population tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Slum share of urban population by country | -0.78 | -0.46 | 0.009 | 178 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Health coverage indexWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Health coverage index tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Health coverage index by country | +0.84 | +0.44 | 0.032 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Skilled birth attendanceWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Skilled birth attendance tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Skilled birth attendance by country | +0.73 | +0.40 | 0.030 | 174 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Secondary enrollmentWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Secondary enrollment tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Secondary enrollment by country | +0.76 | +0.36 | 0.038 | 179 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Vulnerable employmentWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Vulnerable employment tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Vulnerable employment by country | -0.81 | -0.33 | 0.020 | 174 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Tobacco useWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Tobacco use tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Tobacco use by country | +0.33 | +0.31 | 0.025 | 164 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Under-5 mortalityWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Under-5 mortality tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Under-5 mortality by country | -0.75 | -0.31 | 0.028 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Pupil-teacher ratioWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Pupil-teacher ratio tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Pupil-teacher ratio by country | -0.75 | -0.31 | 0.003 | 173 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Infant mortalityWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Infant mortality tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infant mortality by country | -0.76 | -0.30 | 0.017 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Maternal mortalityWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Maternal mortality tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Maternal mortality by country | -0.69 | -0.27 | 0.026 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Median ageWhere Mean years of schooling is higher, Median age tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Median age by country | +0.78 | +0.26 | 0.035 | 187 | proxy |
Links that don’t count as findings
These go together strongly, but they are built from the same numbers or measure the same thing. So they are bound to match, or their match shows that the measures agree, not something about the world.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mean years of schooling and HDINot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. HDI by country | +0.91 | +0.76 | 0.000 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Inequality-adjusted HDINot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Inequality-adjusted HDI by country | +0.92 | +0.70 | 0.002 | 167 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Education scoreNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Education score by country | +0.87 | +0.60 | 0.008 | 185 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Gender Development IndexNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Gender Development Index by country | +0.71 | +0.43 | 0.024 | 180 | high |
How much the other measures account for
The 71 most widely reported measures boil down to a few broad patterns. This table shows how much of the differences between countries on this measure those patterns account for, adding one pattern at a time. The patterns are rebuilt without this measure, and without anything built from the same numbers or measuring the same thing. So it never predicts itself under another name. The figures use the 133 countries reporting all of them, and 68 candidate measures.
This shows how much it moves with the others. It does not explain anything. Measures that move together end up on the same pattern whether or not anything connects them. And the countries here are the best-documented ones. A high figure means this measure is largely predictable from the others, not that they produce it.
| Patterns used | Share of this measure accounted for | Added by this pattern |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 74% | — |
| 2 | 74% | +0% |
| 3 | 75% | +1% |
| 4 | 76% | +1% |
| 5 | 76% | +0% |
| 6 | 76% | +0% |
This measure sits on the pattern all the measures share, which is national income under another name.
How it differs by category
This compares the measure across groups of countries, such as those sharing a main religion, instead of against another number. The figure is the share of the differences between countries on this measure that lies between the groups, on a scale from 0 to 1. It is shown before and after adjusting for national income.
The “between groups” figure runs from 0 (the groups are no different) to 1 (the groups explain all the differences between countries). Groups have no up or down, so this says how much the groups differ, never which way. For that, read the group averages. The figure also tends to rise when there are more groups. So to judge whether it could be chance (q), we shuffle the same labels among the same countries many times and see how often a figure this big turns up. Then we allow for the fact that many measures are checked at once, since with enough checks a few big figures turn up by luck alone. Groups with fewer than 12 countries are left out. And countries that share a label share a lot else. Adjusting for income rules out one third factor, but leaves language, region, legal tradition and history untouched.
| Grouped by | Between groups | After income | q | Groups at each end |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Last European coloniser | 0.52 | 0.34 | 0.008 | best: Never a European colony 9.76 · worst: France 5.28 years |
| Largest religious group | 0.31 | 0.31 | 0.003 | best: Christians 9.72 · worst: Muslims 7.5 years |
Every other pair
Everything else this measure was tested against, apart from the links that hold up and the pairs built from the same numbers. Sorted by the link after adjusting. Search by name; every column sorts. A small adjusted figure is a result too. It says the two do not move together once income is set aside.
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| Mean years of schooling and Family benefits spendingComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.47, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Family benefits spending by country | +0.56 | +0.47 | 0.265 | 42 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Married by 18Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.45) could easily be chance. Married by 18 by country | -0.70 | -0.45 | 0.054 | 134 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and PISA mathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.41) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA maths by country | +0.72 | +0.41 | 0.112 | 85 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Informal employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.41) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Informal employment by country | -0.83 | -0.41 | 0.082 | 140 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Recycling rateComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.40, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Recycling rate by country | +0.55 | +0.40 | 0.316 | 35 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health spending by country | +0.36 | +0.40 | 0.130 | 186 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Gender wage gapCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender wage gap by country | +0.26 | +0.38 | 0.225 | 38 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Gender Inequality IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.38) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Inequality Index by country | -0.84 | -0.38 | 0.074 | 169 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Primary completionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.37) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Primary completion by country | +0.76 | +0.37 | 0.143 | 161 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and One-person householdsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.36) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. One-person households by country | +0.71 | +0.36 | 0.081 | 143 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Expected schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Expected schooling by country | +0.77 | +0.35 | 0.112 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Hospital bedsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hospital beds by country | +0.59 | +0.35 | 0.080 | 171 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and PISA scienceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA science by country | +0.68 | +0.34 | 0.143 | 85 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Christian shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Christian share by country | +0.20 | +0.34 | 0.159 | 178 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Child stuntingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.33) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Child stunting by country | -0.74 | -0.33 | 0.208 | 155 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Religion very importantLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.32) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religion very important by country | -0.65 | -0.32 | 0.172 | 104 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Anaemia in womenLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.32) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Anaemia in women by country | -0.68 | -0.32 | 0.193 | 185 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Adult obesityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Adult obesity by country | +0.40 | +0.32 | 0.348 | 185 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and PISA readingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.31) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. PISA reading by country | +0.67 | +0.31 | 0.188 | 85 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Women in managementCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in management by country | +0.40 | +0.31 | 0.068 | 148 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Infrastructure scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.29) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infrastructure score by country | +0.82 | +0.29 | 0.086 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Basic sanitationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.29) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic sanitation by country | +0.75 | +0.29 | 0.054 | 186 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Population 65+Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 65+ by country | +0.71 | +0.28 | 0.082 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Tertiary enrollmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tertiary enrollment by country | +0.71 | +0.28 | 0.053 | 171 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Education spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education spending by country | +0.20 | +0.28 | 0.377 | 179 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and PhysiciansLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.27) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Physicians by country | +0.74 | +0.27 | 0.107 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Divorce rate (UN)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Divorce rate (UN) by country | +0.23 | +0.27 | 0.077 | 86 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Muslim shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Muslim share by country | -0.33 | -0.27 | 0.285 | 178 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Government consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government consumption by country | +0.25 | +0.27 | 0.368 | 168 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Population growthLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.27) could easily be chance. Population growth by country | -0.51 | -0.27 | 0.133 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Voice and accountabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.27) could easily be chance. Voice and accountability by country | +0.58 | +0.27 | 0.433 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and RedistributionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Redistribution by country | +0.58 | +0.26 | 0.080 | 45 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Electricity accessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Electricity access by country | +0.71 | +0.26 | 0.106 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Road traffic deathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Road traffic deaths by country | -0.65 | -0.26 | 0.208 | 183 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Birth rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth rate by country | -0.78 | -0.26 | 0.107 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Religious attendanceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.25) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religious attendance by country | -0.64 | -0.25 | 0.345 | 102 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Out of school, primaryLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.25) could easily be chance. Out of school, primary by country | -0.53 | -0.25 | 0.073 | 178 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Government expenseCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government expense by country | +0.38 | +0.25 | 0.392 | 150 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Marriage rate (UN)Almost no link either way. Marriage rate (UN) by country | +0.02 | +0.25 | 0.193 | 94 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Active labour market spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Active labour market spending by country | +0.11 | -0.25 | 0.141 | 42 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Tax revenueCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tax revenue by country | +0.38 | +0.24 | 0.131 | 150 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Political rights (FH)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political rights (FH) by country | -0.49 | -0.24 | 0.454 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Trust in governmentAlmost no link either way. Trust in government by country | +0.02 | -0.24 | 0.127 | 47 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Alcohol consumptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.23) could easily be chance. Alcohol consumption by country | +0.53 | +0.23 | 0.210 | 182 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Rule of lawLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.23) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Rule of law by country | +0.67 | +0.23 | 0.479 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and GDP growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. GDP growth by country | -0.27 | -0.22 | 0.266 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Birth registrationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth registration by country | +0.65 | +0.22 | 0.117 | 165 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Political stabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Political stability by country | +0.57 | +0.22 | 0.364 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Regime typeLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Regime type by country | +0.51 | +0.22 | 0.336 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Fixed broadbandLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fixed broadband by country | +0.75 | +0.21 | 0.222 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Civil liberties (FH)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil liberties (FH) by country | -0.49 | -0.21 | 0.516 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Adolescent fertilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adolescent fertility by country | -0.70 | -0.21 | 0.178 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Women's political empowermentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's political empowerment by country | +0.48 | +0.21 | 0.323 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Free and fair electionsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Free and fair elections by country | +0.58 | +0.21 | 0.431 | 167 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and HIV prevalenceAlmost no link either way. HIV prevalence by country | -0.08 | +0.21 | 0.551 | 148 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Basic water accessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic water access by country | +0.71 | +0.21 | 0.232 | 186 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Suicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Suicide rate by country | +0.28 | +0.21 | 0.287 | 178 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Premature NCD mortalityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Premature NCD mortality by country | -0.47 | +0.20 | 0.323 | 178 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Fertility rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fertility rate by country | -0.74 | -0.20 | 0.337 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Self-reported happinessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Self-reported happiness by country | +0.14 | -0.19 | 0.404 | 104 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Women in a unionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in a union by country | -0.42 | -0.19 | 0.431 | 181 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Food insecurityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.19) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Food insecurity by country | -0.76 | -0.19 | 0.490 | 155 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Women's age at first marriageAlmost no link either way. Women's age at first marriage by country | +0.05 | -0.19 | 0.312 | 40 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Internet usersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.19) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Internet users by country | +0.77 | +0.19 | 0.114 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Armed conflict presentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Armed conflict present by country | -0.42 | -0.19 | 0.332 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Children with one parentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Children with one parent by country | +0.21 | +0.18 | 0.412 | 38 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Frequent prayerLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.18) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Frequent prayer by country | -0.59 | -0.18 | 0.505 | 76 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Population 0-14Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.18) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 0-14 by country | -0.77 | -0.18 | 0.287 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Out-of-pocket health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out-of-pocket health spending by country | -0.38 | -0.18 | 0.573 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Electoral democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Electoral democracy by country | +0.48 | +0.17 | 0.496 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Divorce rateAlmost no link either way. Divorce rate by country | +0.06 | +0.17 | 0.253 | 45 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Participatory democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Participatory democracy by country | +0.48 | +0.17 | 0.491 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and ResearchersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Researchers by country | +0.64 | +0.15 | 0.409 | 129 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Liberal democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Liberal democracy by country | +0.51 | +0.15 | 0.536 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Employment in agricultureLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Employment in agriculture by country | -0.74 | -0.15 | 0.143 | 174 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Confidence in religious institutionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Confidence in religious institutions by country | -0.46 | -0.14 | 0.487 | 104 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Health scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health score by country | +0.17 | -0.14 | 0.642 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Births outside marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Births outside marriage by country | -0.16 | -0.14 | 0.685 | 42 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Single-parent householdsAlmost no link either way. Single-parent households by country | +0.03 | +0.13 | 0.409 | 143 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Conflict deathsAlmost no link either way. Conflict deaths by country | -0.04 | +0.13 | 0.261 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Public social spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Public social spending by country | +0.38 | +0.13 | 0.298 | 42 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Retirement age, menCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, men by country | -0.30 | -0.12 | 0.494 | 49 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Age at childbearingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Age at childbearing by country | +0.31 | -0.12 | 0.611 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Governance scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Governance score by country | +0.48 | +0.12 | 0.654 | 170 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Market-income GiniCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Market-income Gini by country | -0.39 | -0.11 | 0.832 | 45 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Life satisfactionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life satisfaction by country | +0.72 | +0.11 | 0.504 | 158 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Regulatory qualityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Regulatory quality by country | +0.69 | +0.11 | 0.438 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Life expectancyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.10) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life expectancy by country | +0.74 | +0.10 | 0.297 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Control of corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.10) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Control of corruption by country | +0.63 | +0.10 | 0.703 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Public order spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Public order spending by country | -0.26 | +0.10 | 0.472 | 37 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Freedom of associationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of association by country | +0.29 | +0.10 | 0.718 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Compulsory schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Compulsory schooling by country | +0.36 | +0.10 | 0.579 | 177 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Migrant share of populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Migrant share of population by country | +0.43 | -0.10 | 0.563 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and UnemploymentAlmost no link either way. Unemployment by country | -0.02 | +0.09 | 0.563 | 174 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Gender scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender score by country | +0.33 | +0.09 | 0.582 | 179 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Female labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Female labor participation by country | +0.10 | +0.09 | 0.491 | 174 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Government effectivenessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government effectiveness by country | +0.71 | +0.09 | 0.639 | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Labour scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Labour score by country | +0.62 | +0.08 | 0.661 | 182 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Religiously unaffiliatedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Religiously unaffiliated by country | +0.41 | +0.08 | 0.508 | 178 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Retirement age, womenAlmost no link either way. Retirement age, women by country | -0.03 | +0.08 | 0.706 | 49 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and InflationAlmost no link either way. Inflation by country | -0.06 | +0.08 | 0.455 | 183 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Male labor participationAlmost no link either way. Male labor participation by country | -0.03 | -0.08 | 0.542 | 174 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Political civil libertiesCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political civil liberties by country | +0.27 | +0.08 | 0.768 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Youth not in work or studyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Youth not in work or study by country | -0.49 | -0.07 | 0.710 | 169 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Forest areaAlmost no link either way. Forest area by country | +0.08 | +0.07 | 0.688 | 186 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and DTP3 immunisationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. DTP3 immunisation by country | +0.46 | +0.07 | 0.611 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Freedom of expressionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of expression by country | +0.24 | +0.07 | 0.794 | 167 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Primary enrollmentAlmost no link either way. Primary enrollment by country | +0.02 | +0.06 | 0.661 | 184 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Military spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Military spending by country | +0.11 | +0.06 | 0.746 | 155 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Trade opennessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trade openness by country | +0.32 | -0.06 | 0.562 | 170 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Women ministersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women ministers by country | +0.20 | +0.06 | 0.501 | 185 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Hours workedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hours worked by country | -0.32 | -0.06 | 0.555 | 38 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Aid givenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Aid given by country | +0.18 | -0.05 | 0.830 | 47 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Interpersonal trustCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Interpersonal trust by country | +0.47 | +0.05 | 0.771 | 104 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Equality scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Equality score by country | +0.56 | +0.05 | 0.911 | 162 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Extreme poverty rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Extreme poverty rate by country | -0.64 | -0.05 | 0.892 | 162 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Unemployment benefit spendingAlmost no link either way. Unemployment benefit spending by country | +0.08 | -0.05 | 0.750 | 39 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Old-age spendingAlmost no link either way. Old-age spending by country | +0.08 | -0.04 | 0.753 | 42 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Civil society participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil society participation by country | +0.19 | +0.04 | 0.881 | 167 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and CO2 per capitaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. CO2 per capita by country | +0.38 | +0.04 | 0.866 | 182 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Pre-trial detainee shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Pre-trial detainee share by country | -0.26 | -0.04 | 0.734 | 164 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Government spending per capitaLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government spending per capita by country | +0.57 | -0.04 | 0.857 | 43 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Protected landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Protected land by country | +0.21 | +0.04 | 0.784 | 186 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Tuberculosis incidenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tuberculosis incidence by country | -0.41 | +0.03 | 0.903 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Gini indexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gini index by country | -0.25 | -0.03 | 0.934 | 162 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Refugees originatingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Refugees originating by country | -0.22 | -0.03 | 0.796 | 185 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Agricultural landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Agricultural land by country | -0.20 | +0.03 | 0.683 | 187 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and UrbanizationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Urbanization by country | +0.54 | +0.03 | 0.879 | 187 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and FDI inflowsAlmost no link either way. FDI inflows by country | +0.01 | -0.03 | 0.723 | 187 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Marriage rateAlmost no link either way. Marriage rate by country | -0.02 | +0.02 | 0.973 | 46 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Political corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Political corruption by country | -0.56 | +0.01 | 0.941 | 167 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and Homicide rateAlmost no link either way. Homicide rate by country | -0.10 | -0.01 | 0.940 | 161 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Mobile subscriptionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Mobile subscriptions by country | +0.36 | -0.01 | 0.861 | 187 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Women in parliamentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in parliament by country | +0.19 | -0.01 | 0.960 | 185 | independent |
| Mean years of schooling and Corporate tax rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Corporate tax rate by country | -0.29 | -0.01 | 0.977 | 81 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Corruption Perceptions IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Corruption Perceptions Index by country | +0.60 | +0.01 | 0.979 | 173 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and UndernourishmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Undernourishment by country | -0.62 | +0.01 | 0.988 | 162 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and Environment scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Environment score by country | -0.29 | +0.01 | 0.966 | 186 | moderate |
| Mean years of schooling and Wellbeing scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Wellbeing score by country | +0.57 | +0.00 | 0.999 | 104 | high |
| Mean years of schooling and GDP per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (PPP) by country | +0.65 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and GNI per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GNI per capita (PPP) by country | +0.68 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
| Mean years of schooling and GDP per capita (market)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (market) by country | +0.60 | — | — | 187 | proxy |
Source
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office · via Our World in Data
CC BY 3.0 IGO · licence terms · updated annual
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2025