Do Electoral democracy and Expected schooling go together across countries?

Across 167 countries the link before adjusting for anything is r = +0.53, on a scale from -1 (opposite) to +1 (in step). A version that uses only each country's rank gives +0.54.

Does the link hold within countries over time, not just across countries?

Comparing each country only with itself across 1990-2023, and setting aside what happened worldwide in each year, the link is +0.069 (172 countries, 5,672 country-years). Using year-to-year changes, it is -0.001.

Does Electoral democracy cause Expected schooling?

This analysis cannot answer that. It shows only that the two go together. A link between two country measures, adjusted or not, does not show that either one changes the other. Country figures also say nothing about individual people.

Electoral democracy vs. Expected schooling

Fades after adjusting for income

Across 167 countries, Electoral democracy and Expected schooling rise and fall together at r = +0.53 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) shrinks it to +0.30, which could easily be chance (q = 0.082, allowing for the many pairs tested, and allowing for countries in the same region being alike). So the first figure mostly shows richer countries differing from poorer ones, not a link between these two things.

Comparing countries across the middle half of expected schooling, 11.4 to 15.9 years, electoral democracy is better by 0.202 points at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 0.173 points.

Link before adjusting (r)+0.534p = 1.1e-13 · 167 countries

After adjusting for national income+0.298p = 9.7e-5 · likely range [+0.15, +0.43]

p, allowing for regions0.002standard error 0.058 · 7 regions

Check for luck (q)0.082across 12,497 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Electoral democracy · index (0-1)link with income +0.49 · moderate

Expected schooling · yearslink with income +0.81 · proxy

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

Method	r	p	Countries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted	+0.534	1.1e-13	167
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted	+0.541	4.4e-14	167
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income	+0.298	9.7e-5	167
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income	+0.270	0.000	167

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 167 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.236 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from +0.262 (without QAT) to +0.324 (without TUR). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: QAT (-0.035).

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

	n	r
East Asia & Pacific	21	+0.45
Europe & Central Asia	48	+0.37
Latin America & Caribbean	23	+0.38
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan	21	+0.07
Sub-Saharan Africa	46	+0.05

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

	n	r
Poorest third	56	+0.25
Middle third	55	+0.01
Richest third	56	+0.43

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

	n	r
Christians	99	+0.27
Muslims	47	-0.03

By last european coloniser

	n	r
France	25	+0.13
Never a European colony	21	+0.19
Spain	19	+0.17
United Kingdom	49	+0.32

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = +0.298 after dropping 0 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 34years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

Within countries over time, there is no link that is clearly more than chance (r = +0.069, comparing each country only with itself over the years, and each year only with the same year elsewhere). Whatever the cross-country picture shows, countries whose electoral democracy moved did not tend to see their expected schooling move with it.

Across countries (adjusted)+0.298for comparison

Within countries+0.236each country vs itself

…and vs the same year elsewhere+0.069q = 0.397 · 172 countries

Year-on-year changes-0.001q = 0.987

5,672 country-years (one country in one year), 172 countries, 1990–2023, about 33 years each on average. Share of the variation that happens within countries over time: 20% for Electoral democracy, 10% for Expected schooling. The margins of error allow for each country appearing many times, and for each year’s value being close to the year before.

Year-to-year changes are a cautious test, not a final answer. Looking only at changes from one year to the next removes each country’s own trends. But it also makes measurement mistakes louder, which pulls the results toward zero. A near-zero result here is weak evidence of no link, not proof.

With one measure years behind the other

Same year (lag 0): +0.069. A peak away from zero does not show which comes first. These series change slowly — this year’s value is close to last year’s. That makes the curve smooth and nearly symmetric, whatever produced the data. Even a sharp peak at one lag (a gap of some years) would not prove that one measure changes the other.

This curve peaks at the edge of the window (lag +10), so it is still drifting where the search stops. That pattern usually reflects a slow trend left over in the data, not a link with real timing. The peak value should not be read as the “true” link at the right lag.

The data

	index (0-1)	years	Years
Denmark DNK	0.913	18.7	2025, 2023
Norway NOR	0.89	18.8	2025, 2023
Sweden SWE	0.889	19	2025, 2023
Belgium BEL	0.889	19	2025, 2023
Ireland IRL	0.887	19.2	2025, 2023
Estonia EST	0.887	16	2025, 2023
Switzerland CHE	0.882	16.7	2025, 2023
Luxembourg LUX	0.869	14.4	2025, 2023
France FRA	0.865	16.1	2025, 2023
Uruguay URY	0.862	17.5	2025, 2023
Costa Rica CRI	0.862	16.3	2025, 2023
Finland FIN	0.852	19.5	2025, 2023
New Zealand NZL	0.849	19.3	2025, 2023
Czechia CZE	0.849	16.8	2025, 2023
Australia AUS	0.844	20.7	2025, 2023

Coppedge, M. et al., V-Dem Dataset, Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project
United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2025

Sources

Electoral democracy

Electoral democracy index (polyarchy)

V-Dem Institute, University of Gothenburg · via Our World in Data · CC BY 4.0 · updated annual

Based on political scientist Robert Dahl's idea of "polyarchy": are leaders chosen in free and fair elections, with freedom of speech, freedom to form groups, and the vote for nearly all adults? It is the base index that most other V-Dem measures are built on.

Expected schooling

Expected years of schooling

United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office · via Our World in Data · CC BY 3.0 IGO · updated annual

The years a child starting school today can expect to spend in it, if current enrolment rates hold. It is a forecast built from the same UNESCO enrolment figures the site already has, so it moves with them.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2023–2025. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Electoral democracy and Expected schooling

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Electoral democracy changes Expected schooling, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.