Public social spending
Public social expenditure
Link with national income+0.44partly income-linked
Links that hold up25of 155 pairs tested
Unit% of GDPhigher is neither better nor worse
SourceOECDCC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions)
What this measures. All public social spending, as a share of GDP: pensions, health, family, unemployment, housing and the rest. The figures before 1980 are stitched together from older OECD tables and from Lindert's historical estimates, so they are left out. The OECD's social spending database (SOCX) itself starts in 1980. The four spending areas below are parts of this total and are flagged as such.
How it has moved
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Every country, every year
One row per country and one column per year, sorted by the most recent value. Hover over any cell to see the figure. The country names link to each country’s page.
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Links that hold up
r is how closely two measures rise and fall together across countries, from −1 (opposite) to +1 (in step), where 0 means no link. These pairs are ranked by the link after adjusting for national income, which means comparing countries with the same GDP per person. Each pair passed three checks. The link held after that adjustment. It was unlikely to be chance (q of 0.05 or less), even allowing for countries in the same region being alike and for the many pairs tested. And the two are not just two measures of the same thing. Very small q values are written in short form: 8.0e-5 means 0.000080.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Public social spending and Population 65+Where Public social spending is higher, Population 65+ tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Population 65+ by country | +0.73 | +0.68 | 0.036 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Government expenseWhere Public social spending is higher, Government expense tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Government expense by country | +0.58 | +0.64 | 0.029 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Male labor participationWhere Public social spending is higher, Male labor participation tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Male labor participation by country | -0.65 | -0.63 | 0.026 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Government consumptionWhere Public social spending is higher, Government consumption tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Government consumption by country | +0.63 | +0.58 | 0.032 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and One-person householdsWhere Public social spending is higher, One-person households tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. One-person households by country | +0.69 | +0.56 | 0.036 | 34 | high |
| Public social spending and Hours workedWhere Public social spending is higher, Hours worked tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Hours worked by country | -0.57 | -0.53 | 0.034 | 36 | high |
| Public social spending and Government spending per capitaWhere Public social spending is higher, Government spending per capita tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Government spending per capita by country | +0.58 | +0.53 | 0.050 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Gender Inequality IndexWhere Public social spending is higher, Gender Inequality Index tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Gender Inequality Index by country | -0.64 | -0.50 | 0.036 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and GDP growthWhere Public social spending is higher, GDP growth tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. GDP growth by country | -0.37 | -0.47 | 0.033 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Inequality-adjusted HDIWhere Public social spending is higher, Inequality-adjusted HDI tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Inequality-adjusted HDI by country | +0.62 | +0.47 | 0.029 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Employment in agricultureWhere Public social spending is higher, Employment in agriculture tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Employment in agriculture by country | -0.61 | -0.45 | 0.046 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Retirement age, womenWhere Public social spending is higher, Retirement age, women tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, women by country | -0.44 | -0.44 | 0.039 | 39 | independent |
| Public social spending and PhysiciansWhere Public social spending is higher, Physicians tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Physicians by country | +0.52 | +0.42 | 0.021 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Vulnerable employmentWhere Public social spending is higher, Vulnerable employment tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Vulnerable employment by country | -0.59 | -0.40 | 0.043 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Protected landWhere Public social spending is higher, Protected land tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Protected land by country | +0.32 | +0.40 | 0.038 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Rule of lawWhere Public social spending is higher, Rule of law tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Rule of law by country | +0.57 | +0.37 | 0.019 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Religion very importantWhere Public social spending is higher, Religion very important tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Religion very important by country | -0.49 | -0.34 | 0.035 | 40 | high |
| Public social spending and Basic sanitationWhere Public social spending is higher, Basic sanitation tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Basic sanitation by country | +0.44 | +0.32 | 0.049 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Adolescent fertilityWhere Public social spending is higher, Adolescent fertility tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Adolescent fertility by country | -0.53 | -0.31 | 0.031 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Forest areaWhere Public social spending is higher, Forest area tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Forest area by country | +0.09 | +0.29 | 0.036 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Pupil-teacher ratioWhere Public social spending is higher, Pupil-teacher ratio tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Pupil-teacher ratio by country | -0.45 | -0.24 | 0.018 | 40 | proxy |
| Public social spending and UnemploymentWhere Public social spending is higher, Unemployment tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment by country | +0.12 | +0.22 | 0.018 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Interpersonal trustWhere Public social spending is higher, Interpersonal trust tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Interpersonal trust by country | +0.45 | +0.22 | 0.017 | 40 | high |
| Public social spending and Single-parent householdsWhere Public social spending is higher, Single-parent households tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Single-parent households by country | -0.37 | -0.21 | 0.011 | 34 | independent |
| Public social spending and Religiously unaffiliatedWhere Public social spending is higher, Religiously unaffiliated tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Religiously unaffiliated by country | +0.29 | +0.17 | 0.048 | 42 | moderate |
Links that don’t count as findings
These go together strongly, but they are built from the same numbers or measure the same thing. So they are bound to match, or their match shows that the measures agree, not something about the world.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Public social spending and Old-age spendingNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Old-age spending by country | +0.84 | +0.87 | 0.001 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Family benefits spendingNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Family benefits spending by country | +0.53 | +0.44 | 0.053 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Active labour market spendingNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Active labour market spending by country | +0.46 | +0.31 | 0.052 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Unemployment benefit spendingNot an independent finding: one of these indices is built partly from the other, so their agreement is just arithmetic. Unemployment benefit spending by country | +0.33 | +0.28 | 0.263 | 39 | moderate |
How much the other measures account for
The 71 most widely reported measures boil down to a few broad patterns. This table shows how much of the differences between countries on this measure those patterns account for, adding one pattern at a time. The patterns are rebuilt without this measure, and without anything built from the same numbers or measuring the same thing. So it never predicts itself under another name. The figures use the 41 countries reporting all of them, and 71 candidate measures.
This shows how much it moves with the others. It does not explain anything. Measures that move together end up on the same pattern whether or not anything connects them. And the countries here are the best-documented ones. A high figure means this measure is largely predictable from the others, not that they produce it.
| Patterns used | Share of this measure accounted for | Added by this pattern |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 42% | — |
| 2 | 47% | +5% |
| 3 | 48% | +1% |
| 4 | 49% | +1% |
| 5 | 51% | +2% |
| 6 | 55% | +4% |
Every other pair
Everything else this measure was tested against, apart from the links that hold up and the pairs built from the same numbers. Sorted by the link after adjusting. Search by name; every column sorts. A small adjusted figure is a result too. It says the two do not move together once income is set aside.
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| Public social spending and RedistributionComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.69, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Redistribution by country | +0.73 | +0.69 | 0.082 | 40 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Median ageComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.59, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Median age by country | +0.65 | +0.59 | 0.066 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Informal employmentComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.54, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Informal employment by country | -0.69 | -0.54 | 0.294 | 36 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Women's age at first marriageComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.54, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Women's age at first marriage by country | +0.59 | +0.54 | 0.112 | 39 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Under-5 mortalityComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.52, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Under-5 mortality by country | -0.65 | -0.52 | 0.074 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Infant mortalityComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.52, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Infant mortality by country | -0.65 | -0.52 | 0.077 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Slum share of urban populationComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.50, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Slum share of urban population by country | -0.63 | -0.50 | 0.122 | 41 | high |
| Public social spending and Population 0-14Comparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.48, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Population 0-14 by country | -0.56 | -0.48 | 0.094 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Retirement age, menCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, men by country | -0.50 | -0.46 | 0.057 | 39 | independent |
| Public social spending and Tax revenueCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tax revenue by country | +0.50 | +0.44 | 0.076 | 41 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Birth registrationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.43) could easily be chance. Birth registration by country | +0.60 | +0.43 | 0.058 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Fixed broadbandLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.41) could easily be chance. Fixed broadband by country | +0.58 | +0.41 | 0.060 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Health spendingComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.41, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Health spending by country | +0.52 | +0.41 | 0.170 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Women's political empowermentComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.40, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Women's political empowerment by country | +0.52 | +0.40 | 0.085 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Voice and accountabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.40) could easily be chance. Voice and accountability by country | +0.58 | +0.40 | 0.076 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Environment scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Environment score by country | +0.22 | +0.40 | 0.084 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and ResearchersComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.40, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Researchers by country | +0.53 | +0.40 | 0.158 | 40 | proxy |
| Public social spending and HDILinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.39) could easily be chance. HDI by country | +0.58 | +0.39 | 0.055 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Gini indexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.37) could easily be chance. Gini index by country | -0.54 | -0.37 | 0.062 | 41 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Food insecurityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.37) could easily be chance. Food insecurity by country | -0.56 | -0.37 | 0.082 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Health scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.37) could easily be chance. Health score by country | +0.52 | +0.37 | 0.065 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Birth rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Birth rate by country | -0.44 | -0.37 | 0.189 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Infrastructure scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.37) could easily be chance. Infrastructure score by country | +0.57 | +0.37 | 0.097 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Armed conflict presentComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.37, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Armed conflict present by country | -0.51 | -0.37 | 0.057 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Equality scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.36) could easily be chance. Equality score by country | +0.54 | +0.36 | 0.054 | 41 | high |
| Public social spending and Political rights (FH)Comparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.36, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Political rights (FH) by country | -0.51 | -0.36 | 0.088 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Civil liberties (FH)Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.36) could easily be chance. Civil liberties (FH) by country | -0.51 | -0.36 | 0.139 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Population growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Population growth by country | -0.19 | -0.36 | 0.164 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Adult obesityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Adult obesity by country | -0.46 | -0.36 | 0.109 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Child stuntingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.35) could easily be chance. Child stunting by country | -0.56 | -0.35 | 0.151 | 25 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Governance scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Governance score by country | +0.51 | +0.35 | 0.111 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Political corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.34) could easily be chance. Political corruption by country | -0.53 | -0.34 | 0.106 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Religious attendanceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Religious attendance by country | -0.47 | -0.33 | 0.069 | 40 | high |
| Public social spending and Tuberculosis incidenceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.33) could easily be chance. Tuberculosis incidence by country | -0.51 | -0.33 | 0.071 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Homicide rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.33) could easily be chance. Homicide rate by country | -0.52 | -0.33 | 0.161 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Maternal mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.33) could easily be chance. Maternal mortality by country | -0.54 | -0.33 | 0.093 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Market-income GiniCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Market-income Gini by country | +0.25 | +0.33 | 0.077 | 40 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Free and fair electionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Free and fair elections by country | +0.47 | +0.33 | 0.214 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Political civil libertiesCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political civil liberties by country | +0.45 | +0.32 | 0.145 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Youth not in work or studyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.31) could easily be chance. Youth not in work or study by country | -0.52 | -0.31 | 0.091 | 41 | high |
| Public social spending and Aid givenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Aid given by country | +0.28 | +0.30 | 0.285 | 37 | high |
| Public social spending and Road traffic deathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.29) could easily be chance. Road traffic deaths by country | -0.52 | -0.29 | 0.254 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Freedom of associationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of association by country | +0.43 | +0.29 | 0.082 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Liberal democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Liberal democracy by country | +0.47 | +0.29 | 0.160 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Electoral democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Electoral democracy by country | +0.46 | +0.29 | 0.214 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and InflationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Inflation by country | -0.33 | -0.28 | 0.367 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Primary completionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Primary completion by country | +0.46 | +0.28 | 0.097 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Education spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education spending by country | +0.31 | +0.27 | 0.389 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Electricity accessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Electricity access by country | +0.46 | +0.27 | 0.291 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Control of corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Control of corruption by country | +0.51 | +0.26 | 0.092 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Out-of-pocket health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out-of-pocket health spending by country | -0.44 | -0.25 | 0.316 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Corporate tax rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Corporate tax rate by country | +0.19 | +0.25 | 0.471 | 40 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Confidence in religious institutionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Confidence in religious institutions by country | -0.33 | -0.24 | 0.094 | 40 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Life expectancyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Life expectancy by country | +0.45 | +0.24 | 0.306 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and PISA scienceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. PISA science by country | +0.46 | +0.24 | 0.198 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Freedom of expressionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of expression by country | +0.38 | +0.24 | 0.295 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Alcohol consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Alcohol consumption by country | +0.37 | +0.24 | 0.161 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and PISA mathsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. PISA maths by country | +0.48 | +0.24 | 0.240 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Pre-trial detainee shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Pre-trial detainee share by country | -0.14 | -0.24 | 0.337 | 41 | independent |
| Public social spending and Conflict deathsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Conflict deaths by country | -0.40 | -0.23 | 0.336 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Regime typeCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Regime type by country | +0.41 | +0.23 | 0.207 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Age at childbearingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Age at childbearing by country | +0.48 | +0.23 | 0.285 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Tobacco useCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tobacco use by country | +0.18 | +0.23 | 0.269 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Wellbeing scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Wellbeing score by country | +0.45 | +0.22 | 0.266 | 40 | high |
| Public social spending and Women in a unionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in a union by country | +0.25 | +0.22 | 0.202 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Suicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Suicide rate by country | +0.34 | +0.22 | 0.312 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Civil society participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil society participation by country | +0.42 | +0.22 | 0.530 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Corruption Perceptions IndexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Corruption Perceptions Index by country | +0.48 | +0.22 | 0.155 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Government effectivenessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government effectiveness by country | +0.49 | +0.22 | 0.091 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Internet usersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Internet users by country | +0.24 | -0.21 | 0.381 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and HIV prevalenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. HIV prevalence by country | -0.43 | -0.21 | 0.222 | 32 | moderate |
| Public social spending and UndernourishmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Undernourishment by country | -0.41 | -0.21 | 0.187 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Participatory democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Participatory democracy by country | +0.40 | +0.20 | 0.359 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Gender scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender score by country | +0.25 | +0.20 | 0.504 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Trade opennessAlmost no link either way. Trade openness by country | +0.08 | -0.20 | 0.323 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Female labor participationAlmost no link either way. Female labor participation by country | +0.00 | -0.20 | 0.090 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Education scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education score by country | +0.35 | +0.19 | 0.250 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Gender wage gapCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender wage gap by country | -0.21 | -0.19 | 0.395 | 38 | independent |
| Public social spending and Hospital bedsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Hospital beds by country | +0.22 | +0.19 | 0.367 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Muslim shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Muslim share by country | -0.18 | -0.19 | 0.347 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Recycling rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Recycling rate by country | +0.30 | +0.19 | 0.619 | 35 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Marriage rate (UN)Almost no link either way. Marriage rate (UN) by country | -0.09 | -0.18 | 0.298 | 41 | independent |
| Public social spending and UrbanizationAlmost no link either way. Urbanization by country | -0.08 | -0.18 | 0.329 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Basic water accessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Basic water access by country | +0.28 | +0.18 | 0.203 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Primary enrollmentAlmost no link either way. Primary enrollment by country | +0.03 | +0.17 | 0.318 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and CO2 per capitaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. CO2 per capita by country | +0.11 | -0.17 | 0.621 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Regulatory qualityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Regulatory quality by country | +0.46 | +0.17 | 0.213 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Tertiary enrollmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tertiary enrollment by country | +0.16 | +0.16 | 0.511 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and PISA readingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. PISA reading by country | +0.41 | +0.16 | 0.286 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Fertility rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Fertility rate by country | -0.24 | -0.16 | 0.494 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Marriage rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Marriage rate by country | -0.12 | -0.16 | 0.395 | 41 | independent |
| Public social spending and Women in parliamentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in parliament by country | +0.16 | +0.15 | 0.652 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Women ministersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women ministers by country | +0.22 | +0.14 | 0.502 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Labour scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Labour score by country | +0.40 | +0.14 | 0.333 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Gender Development IndexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender Development Index by country | +0.21 | +0.14 | 0.335 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Mean years of schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Mean years of schooling by country | +0.38 | +0.13 | 0.298 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Expected schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Expected schooling by country | +0.28 | +0.13 | 0.258 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Births outside marriageAlmost no link either way. Births outside marriage by country | +0.09 | +0.12 | 0.755 | 40 | independent |
| Public social spending and Divorce rate (UN)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Divorce rate (UN) by country | +0.13 | +0.12 | 0.362 | 39 | independent |
| Public social spending and Political stabilityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political stability by country | +0.32 | +0.11 | 0.611 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Extreme poverty rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Extreme poverty rate by country | -0.36 | -0.10 | 0.328 | 41 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Anaemia in womenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Anaemia in women by country | -0.25 | -0.10 | 0.819 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Health coverage indexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health coverage index by country | +0.34 | +0.10 | 0.594 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and FDI inflowsAlmost no link either way. FDI inflows by country | -0.10 | +0.09 | 0.309 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Skilled birth attendanceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Skilled birth attendance by country | +0.16 | +0.08 | 0.057 | 35 | high |
| Public social spending and Divorce rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Divorce rate by country | -0.10 | -0.08 | 0.639 | 41 | independent |
| Public social spending and Out of school, primaryCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out of school, primary by country | -0.18 | -0.08 | 0.668 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Life satisfactionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Life satisfaction by country | +0.29 | +0.08 | 0.796 | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and Trust in governmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trust in government by country | +0.23 | -0.07 | 0.721 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Migrant share of populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Migrant share of population by country | +0.27 | -0.07 | 0.545 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Secondary enrollmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Secondary enrollment by country | +0.19 | +0.07 | 0.610 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Public order spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Public order spending by country | -0.23 | -0.07 | 0.701 | 37 | high |
| Public social spending and Christian shareAlmost no link either way. Christian share by country | -0.05 | +0.07 | 0.700 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Compulsory schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Compulsory schooling by country | -0.16 | -0.05 | 0.875 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Self-reported happinessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Self-reported happiness by country | +0.17 | -0.05 | 0.800 | 40 | moderate |
| Public social spending and DTP3 immunisationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. DTP3 immunisation by country | +0.21 | +0.05 | 0.539 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Refugees originatingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Refugees originating by country | -0.15 | -0.04 | 0.783 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Agricultural landAlmost no link either way. Agricultural land by country | +0.01 | -0.04 | 0.764 | 42 | independent |
| Public social spending and Premature NCD mortalityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Premature NCD mortality by country | -0.21 | -0.04 | 0.903 | 42 | high |
| Public social spending and Women in managementCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in management by country | -0.11 | -0.03 | 0.919 | 39 | moderate |
| Public social spending and Children with one parentAlmost no link either way. Children with one parent by country | +0.05 | +0.03 | 0.912 | 36 | independent |
| Public social spending and Military spendingAlmost no link either way. Military spending by country | -0.09 | -0.02 | 0.945 | 40 | independent |
| Public social spending and Mobile subscriptionsAlmost no link either way. Mobile subscriptions by country | -0.09 | -0.01 | 0.926 | 42 | moderate |
| Public social spending and GDP per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (PPP) by country | +0.30 | — | — | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and GNI per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GNI per capita (PPP) by country | +0.42 | — | — | 42 | proxy |
| Public social spending and GDP per capita (market)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (market) by country | +0.26 | — | — | 42 | proxy |
Source
OECD · via Our World in Data
CC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions) · licence terms · updated annual, except the snapshots noted per indicator
OECD databases as named on each indicator: PISA, Social Expenditure Database (SOCX), Income Distribution Database, Development Assistance Committee statistics, Family Database, Government at a Glance, Corporate Tax Statistics, employment and environment statistics