PISA maths
PISA mean mathematics score
Link with national income+0.79strongly income-linked
Links that hold up13of 158 pairs tested
UnitPISA pointshigher is better
SourceOECDCC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions)
What this measures. The average score of 15-year-olds on the same test in every country taking part. It is scaled so the OECD average in the starting year was 500, with a standard deviation (a typical gap between students) of 100. Held every three years. The 2021 round was held in 2022, and the OECD says it can still be compared with earlier rounds despite the pandemic. The three subjects are treated as measuring the same thing. Their links with each other are above 0.95, and that close match is a fact about the test, not about schooling.
How it has moved
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Every country, every year
One row per country and one column per year, sorted by the most recent value. Hover over any cell to see the figure. The country names link to each country’s page.
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Links that hold up
r is how closely two measures rise and fall together across countries, from −1 (opposite) to +1 (in step), where 0 means no link. These pairs are ranked by the link after adjusting for national income, which means comparing countries with the same GDP per person. Each pair passed three checks. The link held after that adjustment. It was unlikely to be chance (q of 0.05 or less), even allowing for countries in the same region being alike and for the many pairs tested. And the two are not just two measures of the same thing. Very small q values are written in short form: 8.0e-5 means 0.000080.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PISA maths and ResearchersWhere PISA maths is higher, Researchers tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Researchers by country | +0.81 | +0.59 | 0.036 | 82 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Frequent prayerWhere PISA maths is higher, Frequent prayer tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Frequent prayer by country | -0.76 | -0.58 | 0.006 | 51 | high |
| PISA maths and Religion very importantWhere PISA maths is higher, Religion very important tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religion very important by country | -0.73 | -0.56 | 0.032 | 76 | high |
| PISA maths and Hospital bedsWhere PISA maths is higher, Hospital beds tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hospital beds by country | +0.53 | +0.52 | 0.038 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Health scoreWhere PISA maths is higher, Health score tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Health score by country | +0.58 | +0.51 | 0.020 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Median ageWhere PISA maths is higher, Median age tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Median age by country | +0.72 | +0.51 | 0.049 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Recycling rateWhere PISA maths is higher, Recycling rate tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Recycling rate by country | +0.63 | +0.51 | 0.017 | 35 | moderate |
| PISA maths and HDIWhere PISA maths is higher, HDI tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. HDI by country | +0.81 | +0.44 | 0.034 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Birth rateWhere PISA maths is higher, Birth rate tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth rate by country | -0.70 | -0.43 | 0.044 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Religious attendanceWhere PISA maths is higher, Religious attendance tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religious attendance by country | -0.61 | -0.41 | 0.049 | 75 | high |
| PISA maths and Education scoreWhere PISA maths is higher, Education score tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Education score by country | +0.71 | +0.39 | 0.031 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Population 0-14Where PISA maths is higher, Population 0-14 tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 0-14 by country | -0.71 | -0.38 | 0.040 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Fertility rateWhere PISA maths is higher, Fertility rate tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fertility rate by country | -0.63 | -0.34 | 0.023 | 87 | proxy |
Links that don’t count as findings
These go together strongly, but they are built from the same numbers or measure the same thing. So they are bound to match, or their match shows that the measures agree, not something about the world.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PISA maths and PISA scienceTwo ways of measuring the same thing, so their agreement tells you about measurement, not about the world. PISA science by country | +0.98 | +0.94 | 0.013 | 87 | high |
| PISA maths and PISA readingTwo ways of measuring the same thing, so their agreement tells you about measurement, not about the world. PISA reading by country | +0.94 | +0.84 | 0.037 | 87 | high |
How much the other measures account for
The 71 most widely reported measures boil down to a few broad patterns. This table shows how much of the differences between countries on this measure those patterns account for, adding one pattern at a time. The patterns are rebuilt without this measure, and without anything built from the same numbers or measuring the same thing. So it never predicts itself under another name. The figures use the 75 countries reporting all of them, and 71 candidate measures.
This shows how much it moves with the others. It does not explain anything. Measures that move together end up on the same pattern whether or not anything connects them. And the countries here are the best-documented ones. A high figure means this measure is largely predictable from the others, not that they produce it.
| Patterns used | Share of this measure accounted for | Added by this pattern |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 70% | — |
| 2 | 70% | +0% |
| 3 | 74% | +4% |
| 4 | 74% | +0% |
| 5 | 78% | +4% |
| 6 | 81% | +3% |
How it differs by category
This compares the measure across groups of countries, such as those sharing a main religion, instead of against another number. The figure is the share of the differences between countries on this measure that lies between the groups, on a scale from 0 to 1. It is shown before and after adjusting for national income.
The “between groups” figure runs from 0 (the groups are no different) to 1 (the groups explain all the differences between countries). Groups have no up or down, so this says how much the groups differ, never which way. For that, read the group averages. The figure also tends to rise when there are more groups. So to judge whether it could be chance (q), we shuffle the same labels among the same countries many times and see how often a figure this big turns up. Then we allow for the fact that many measures are checked at once, since with enough checks a few big figures turn up by luck alone. Groups with fewer than 12 countries are left out. And countries that share a label share a lot else. Adjusting for income rules out one third factor, but leaves language, region, legal tradition and history untouched.
| Grouped by | Between groups | After income | q | Groups at each end |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Last European coloniser | 0.67 | 0.31 | 0.159 | best: United Kingdom 445 · worst: Spain 371 PISA points |
| Largest religious group | 0.41 | 0.26 | 0.052 | best: Christians 440 · worst: Muslims 391 PISA points |
Every other pair
Everything else this measure was tested against, apart from the links that hold up and the pairs built from the same numbers. Sorted by the link after adjusting. Search by name; every column sorts. A small adjusted figure is a result too. It says the two do not move together once income is set aside.
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| PISA maths and Religiously unaffiliatedComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.59, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Religiously unaffiliated by country | +0.65 | +0.59 | 0.177 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Gender Inequality IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.58) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Inequality Index by country | -0.84 | -0.58 | 0.058 | 82 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Population 65+Comparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.56, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 65+ by country | +0.69 | +0.56 | 0.101 | 87 | high |
| PISA maths and Gender wage gapCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender wage gap by country | +0.36 | +0.55 | 0.109 | 38 | independent |
| PISA maths and Suicide rateComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.54, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Suicide rate by country | +0.60 | +0.54 | 0.092 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and Adult obesityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Adult obesity by country | -0.39 | -0.51 | 0.052 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Inequality-adjusted HDILinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.47) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Inequality-adjusted HDI by country | +0.84 | +0.47 | 0.123 | 80 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Informal employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.46) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Informal employment by country | -0.81 | -0.46 | 0.222 | 63 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Infant mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.44) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infant mortality by country | -0.76 | -0.44 | 0.143 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Road traffic deathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.44) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Road traffic deaths by country | -0.60 | -0.44 | 0.306 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Equality scoreComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.44, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Equality score by country | +0.56 | +0.44 | 0.252 | 79 | high |
| PISA maths and Gini indexComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.43, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Gini index by country | -0.53 | -0.43 | 0.273 | 79 | moderate |
| PISA maths and One-person householdsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.42) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. One-person households by country | +0.67 | +0.42 | 0.302 | 73 | high |
| PISA maths and Adolescent fertilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.42) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adolescent fertility by country | -0.70 | -0.42 | 0.371 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Alcohol consumptionComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.42, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Alcohol consumption by country | +0.52 | +0.42 | 0.170 | 83 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Married by 18Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.41) could easily be chance. Married by 18 by country | -0.59 | -0.41 | 0.450 | 51 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Mean years of schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.41) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Mean years of schooling by country | +0.72 | +0.41 | 0.112 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Male labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Male labor participation by country | -0.35 | -0.41 | 0.285 | 86 | independent |
| PISA maths and Confidence in religious institutionsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.39) could easily be chance. Confidence in religious institutions by country | -0.56 | -0.39 | 0.116 | 76 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Population growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Population growth by country | -0.18 | -0.38 | 0.253 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Maternal mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Maternal mortality by country | -0.65 | -0.35 | 0.088 | 84 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Women's political empowermentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's political empowerment by country | +0.46 | +0.35 | 0.484 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Interpersonal trustLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Interpersonal trust by country | +0.64 | +0.34 | 0.262 | 76 | high |
| PISA maths and Births outside marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Births outside marriage by country | -0.33 | -0.34 | 0.572 | 42 | independent |
| PISA maths and Age at childbearingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Age at childbearing by country | +0.69 | +0.34 | 0.306 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Fixed broadbandLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fixed broadband by country | +0.70 | +0.34 | 0.055 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Infrastructure scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.33) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infrastructure score by country | +0.73 | +0.33 | 0.100 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Under-5 mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.32) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Under-5 mortality by country | -0.72 | -0.32 | 0.251 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Primary completionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.32) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Primary completion by country | +0.57 | +0.32 | 0.109 | 78 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Food insecurityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Food insecurity by country | -0.69 | -0.30 | 0.213 | 77 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Tobacco useAlmost no link either way. Tobacco use by country | +0.07 | +0.29 | 0.422 | 82 | independent |
| PISA maths and Child stuntingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.29) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Child stunting by country | -0.53 | -0.29 | 0.073 | 64 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Birth registrationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.29) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth registration by country | +0.50 | +0.29 | 0.144 | 80 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Tax revenueCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tax revenue by country | +0.37 | +0.28 | 0.417 | 77 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Labour scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Labour score by country | +0.69 | +0.28 | 0.376 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Government expenseCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government expense by country | +0.33 | +0.28 | 0.368 | 79 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Muslim shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Muslim share by country | -0.41 | -0.28 | 0.497 | 87 | independent |
| PISA maths and CO2 per capitaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. CO2 per capita by country | +0.21 | -0.28 | 0.607 | 83 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Rule of lawLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Rule of law by country | +0.72 | +0.28 | 0.227 | 87 | high |
| PISA maths and Health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health spending by country | +0.35 | +0.27 | 0.348 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and RedistributionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Redistribution by country | +0.50 | +0.27 | 0.474 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Extreme poverty rateLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Extreme poverty rate by country | -0.54 | -0.26 | 0.212 | 79 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Control of corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Control of corruption by country | +0.71 | +0.26 | 0.150 | 87 | high |
| PISA maths and Government spending per capitaLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government spending per capita by country | +0.55 | -0.26 | 0.182 | 43 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Tertiary enrollmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tertiary enrollment by country | +0.52 | +0.26 | 0.171 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Compulsory schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Compulsory schooling by country | -0.23 | -0.26 | 0.421 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Corruption Perceptions IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Corruption Perceptions Index by country | +0.71 | +0.26 | 0.446 | 85 | high |
| PISA maths and Government effectivenessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government effectiveness by country | +0.74 | +0.26 | 0.272 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Retirement age, womenAlmost no link either way. Retirement age, women by country | +0.05 | +0.26 | 0.654 | 46 | independent |
| PISA maths and Government consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government consumption by country | +0.38 | +0.26 | 0.552 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and Political corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Political corruption by country | -0.69 | -0.26 | 0.053 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Conflict deathsAlmost no link either way. Conflict deaths by country | -0.09 | +0.25 | 0.193 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Public social spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Public social spending by country | +0.48 | +0.24 | 0.240 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Electricity accessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Electricity access by country | +0.39 | +0.23 | 0.345 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Expected schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Expected schooling by country | +0.58 | +0.22 | 0.130 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Regulatory qualityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Regulatory quality by country | +0.70 | +0.22 | 0.344 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and GDP growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. GDP growth by country | -0.23 | -0.22 | 0.514 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Marriage rate (UN)Almost no link either way. Marriage rate (UN) by country | -0.08 | +0.21 | 0.604 | 72 | independent |
| PISA maths and Unemployment benefit spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment benefit spending by country | +0.32 | +0.21 | 0.089 | 39 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Vulnerable employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Vulnerable employment by country | -0.64 | -0.21 | 0.471 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Divorce rate (UN)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Divorce rate (UN) by country | +0.13 | +0.21 | 0.535 | 68 | independent |
| PISA maths and Trust in governmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trust in government by country | +0.12 | -0.21 | 0.397 | 46 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Public order spendingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Public order spending by country | -0.51 | -0.21 | 0.545 | 37 | high |
| PISA maths and Trade opennessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trade openness by country | +0.42 | +0.21 | 0.466 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Basic sanitationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic sanitation by country | +0.49 | +0.20 | 0.237 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Market-income GiniCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Market-income Gini by country | -0.29 | -0.20 | 0.135 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Homicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Homicide rate by country | -0.36 | -0.19 | 0.361 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Life satisfactionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life satisfaction by country | +0.40 | -0.19 | 0.287 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Pre-trial detainee shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Pre-trial detainee share by country | -0.25 | -0.18 | 0.438 | 85 | independent |
| PISA maths and Free and fair electionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Free and fair elections by country | +0.45 | +0.17 | 0.724 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Skilled birth attendanceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Skilled birth attendance by country | +0.30 | +0.17 | 0.185 | 77 | high |
| PISA maths and Secondary enrollmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.17) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Secondary enrollment by country | +0.52 | +0.17 | 0.318 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Slum share of urban populationLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.17) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Slum share of urban population by country | -0.55 | -0.17 | 0.389 | 83 | high |
| PISA maths and Youth not in work or studyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.17) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Youth not in work or study by country | -0.50 | -0.17 | 0.336 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and HIV prevalenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. HIV prevalence by country | -0.35 | -0.17 | 0.720 | 64 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Voice and accountabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.17) could easily be chance. Voice and accountability by country | +0.53 | +0.17 | 0.680 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Forest areaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Forest area by country | +0.15 | +0.17 | 0.538 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and Armed conflict presentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Armed conflict present by country | -0.36 | -0.17 | 0.475 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Corporate tax rateAlmost no link either way. Corporate tax rate by country | +0.00 | +0.16 | 0.680 | 59 | moderate |
| PISA maths and PhysiciansCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Physicians by country | +0.50 | +0.16 | 0.465 | 84 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Refugees originatingAlmost no link either way. Refugees originating by country | -0.04 | +0.16 | 0.498 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Mobile subscriptionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Mobile subscriptions by country | +0.33 | +0.16 | 0.686 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Old-age spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Old-age spending by country | +0.24 | +0.15 | 0.600 | 42 | independent |
| PISA maths and Women in managementCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in management by country | -0.16 | -0.15 | 0.686 | 73 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Health coverage indexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Health coverage index by country | +0.64 | +0.15 | 0.531 | 84 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Life expectancyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life expectancy by country | +0.67 | +0.15 | 0.607 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Family benefits spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Family benefits spending by country | +0.34 | +0.15 | 0.456 | 42 | independent |
| PISA maths and DTP3 immunisationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. DTP3 immunisation by country | +0.39 | +0.15 | 0.576 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Children with one parentAlmost no link either way. Children with one parent by country | -0.08 | -0.14 | 0.695 | 38 | independent |
| PISA maths and Civil liberties (FH)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil liberties (FH) by country | -0.43 | -0.14 | 0.709 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Migrant share of populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Migrant share of population by country | +0.40 | -0.13 | 0.701 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Employment in agricultureLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.13) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Employment in agriculture by country | -0.57 | -0.13 | 0.445 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Adult literacyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adult literacy by country | +0.40 | +0.13 | 0.333 | 51 | high |
| PISA maths and Gender scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender score by country | +0.30 | +0.13 | 0.721 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Civil society participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil society participation by country | +0.31 | +0.13 | 0.804 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and Women in parliamentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in parliament by country | +0.27 | +0.12 | 0.529 | 83 | independent |
| PISA maths and Liberal democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Liberal democracy by country | +0.45 | +0.12 | 0.795 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Political rights (FH)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political rights (FH) by country | -0.38 | -0.12 | 0.768 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Internet usersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.12) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Internet users by country | +0.57 | +0.12 | 0.612 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Military spendingAlmost no link either way. Military spending by country | +0.02 | +0.11 | 0.786 | 81 | independent |
| PISA maths and Single-parent householdsAlmost no link either way. Single-parent households by country | -0.03 | +0.11 | 0.817 | 73 | independent |
| PISA maths and Wellbeing scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Wellbeing score by country | +0.61 | +0.11 | 0.555 | 76 | high |
| PISA maths and Pupil-teacher ratioLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.11) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Pupil-teacher ratio by country | -0.56 | -0.11 | 0.721 | 81 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Christian shareAlmost no link either way. Christian share by country | +0.02 | -0.11 | 0.814 | 87 | independent |
| PISA maths and Governance scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Governance score by country | +0.42 | +0.11 | 0.837 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Anaemia in womenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Anaemia in women by country | -0.42 | -0.10 | 0.667 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Gender Development IndexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Development Index by country | +0.32 | +0.10 | 0.763 | 85 | high |
| PISA maths and Participatory democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Participatory democracy by country | +0.40 | +0.10 | 0.840 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Environment scoreAlmost no link either way. Environment score by country | -0.03 | -0.10 | 0.678 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Education spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education spending by country | +0.12 | +0.10 | 0.659 | 84 | independent |
| PISA maths and InflationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Inflation by country | -0.12 | -0.10 | 0.630 | 87 | independent |
| PISA maths and Self-reported happinessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Self-reported happiness by country | +0.21 | -0.09 | 0.573 | 76 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Female labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Female labor participation by country | +0.40 | +0.09 | 0.483 | 86 | independent |
| PISA maths and Electoral democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Electoral democracy by country | +0.37 | +0.09 | 0.878 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Premature NCD mortalityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Premature NCD mortality by country | -0.37 | +0.07 | 0.816 | 84 | high |
| PISA maths and Out of school, primaryCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out of school, primary by country | -0.31 | -0.07 | 0.703 | 86 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Regime typeCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Regime type by country | +0.38 | +0.07 | 0.890 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Retirement age, menCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, men by country | -0.26 | -0.07 | 0.893 | 46 | independent |
| PISA maths and Women ministersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women ministers by country | +0.22 | +0.07 | 0.820 | 83 | independent |
| PISA maths and Out-of-pocket health spendingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Out-of-pocket health spending by country | -0.56 | -0.06 | 0.764 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Women in a unionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in a union by country | -0.28 | -0.06 | 0.853 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Protected landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Protected land by country | +0.19 | -0.06 | 0.758 | 85 | independent |
| PISA maths and Hours workedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hours worked by country | -0.34 | -0.05 | 0.846 | 37 | high |
| PISA maths and Aid givenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Aid given by country | +0.20 | +0.05 | 0.736 | 45 | high |
| PISA maths and Women's age at first marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's age at first marriage by country | +0.27 | +0.04 | 0.806 | 40 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Divorce rateAlmost no link either way. Divorce rate by country | -0.04 | +0.04 | 0.882 | 44 | independent |
| PISA maths and Marriage rateAlmost no link either way. Marriage rate by country | +0.07 | +0.04 | 0.887 | 45 | independent |
| PISA maths and FDI inflowsAlmost no link either way. FDI inflows by country | +0.01 | +0.03 | 0.705 | 87 | independent |
| PISA maths and Primary enrollmentAlmost no link either way. Primary enrollment by country | -0.07 | -0.03 | 0.877 | 86 | independent |
| PISA maths and Agricultural landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Agricultural land by country | -0.24 | -0.03 | 0.871 | 85 | independent |
| PISA maths and UrbanizationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Urbanization by country | +0.37 | +0.02 | 0.874 | 87 | high |
| PISA maths and Tuberculosis incidenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tuberculosis incidence by country | -0.33 | -0.02 | 0.897 | 86 | high |
| PISA maths and Freedom of expressionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of expression by country | +0.19 | +0.02 | 0.972 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Basic water accessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic water access by country | +0.47 | +0.02 | 0.925 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Political stabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Political stability by country | +0.53 | +0.01 | 0.955 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Political civil libertiesCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political civil liberties by country | +0.21 | +0.01 | 0.984 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and UnemploymentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment by country | -0.28 | +0.01 | 0.975 | 86 | independent |
| PISA maths and UndernourishmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Undernourishment by country | -0.35 | +0.01 | 0.959 | 81 | proxy |
| PISA maths and Active labour market spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Active labour market spending by country | +0.33 | -0.01 | 0.959 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA maths and Freedom of associationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of association by country | +0.17 | -0.00 | 1.000 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA maths and GDP per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (PPP) by country | +0.71 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and GNI per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GNI per capita (PPP) by country | +0.72 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
| PISA maths and GDP per capita (market)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (market) by country | +0.67 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
Source
OECD · via Our World in Data
CC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions) · licence terms · updated annual, except the snapshots noted per indicator
OECD databases as named on each indicator: PISA, Social Expenditure Database (SOCX), Income Distribution Database, Development Assistance Committee statistics, Family Database, Government at a Glance, Corporate Tax Statistics, employment and environment statistics