PISA reading
PISA mean reading score
Link with national income+0.77strongly income-linked
Links that hold up9of 158 pairs tested
UnitPISA pointshigher is better
SourceOECDCC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions)
How it has moved
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Every country, every year
One row per country and one column per year, sorted by the most recent value. Hover over any cell to see the figure. The country names link to each country’s page.
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Links that hold up
r is how closely two measures rise and fall together across countries, from −1 (opposite) to +1 (in step), where 0 means no link. These pairs are ranked by the link after adjusting for national income, which means comparing countries with the same GDP per person. Each pair passed three checks. The link held after that adjustment. It was unlikely to be chance (q of 0.05 or less), even allowing for countries in the same region being alike and for the many pairs tested. And the two are not just two measures of the same thing. Very small q values are written in short form: 8.0e-5 means 0.000080.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PISA reading and Gender wage gapWhere PISA reading is higher, Gender wage gap tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Gender wage gap by country | +0.42 | +0.59 | 0.026 | 38 | independent |
| PISA reading and Religion very importantWhere PISA reading is higher, Religion very important tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religion very important by country | -0.73 | -0.55 | 0.014 | 76 | high |
| PISA reading and Suicide rateWhere PISA reading is higher, Suicide rate tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Suicide rate by country | +0.58 | +0.51 | 0.030 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Median ageWhere PISA reading is higher, Median age tends to be higher: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Median age by country | +0.71 | +0.49 | 0.011 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Birth rateWhere PISA reading is higher, Birth rate tends to be lower: a moderate link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth rate by country | -0.71 | -0.44 | 0.034 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Population 0-14Where PISA reading is higher, Population 0-14 tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 0-14 by country | -0.72 | -0.40 | 0.042 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Government spending per capitaComparing only countries with similar income, Government spending per capita tends to be lower where PISA reading is higher: the opposite of the unadjusted figure, which only showed the income gap between countries. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government spending per capita by country | +0.47 | -0.39 | 0.037 | 43 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Fertility rateWhere PISA reading is higher, Fertility rate tends to be lower: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fertility rate by country | -0.65 | -0.39 | 0.035 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Health coverage indexWhere PISA reading is higher, Health coverage index tends to be higher: a weak link that holds when only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Health coverage index by country | +0.70 | +0.29 | 0.022 | 84 | proxy |
Links that don’t count as findings
These go together strongly, but they are built from the same numbers or measure the same thing. So they are bound to match, or their match shows that the measures agree, not something about the world.
| Measure | Before adjusting | After adjusting | q | Countries | Tracks income? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| PISA reading and PISA scienceTwo ways of measuring the same thing, so their agreement tells you about measurement, not about the world. PISA science by country | +0.98 | +0.94 | 0.000 | 87 | high |
| PISA reading and PISA mathsTwo ways of measuring the same thing, so their agreement tells you about measurement, not about the world. PISA maths by country | +0.94 | +0.84 | 0.037 | 87 | high |
How much the other measures account for
The 71 most widely reported measures boil down to a few broad patterns. This table shows how much of the differences between countries on this measure those patterns account for, adding one pattern at a time. The patterns are rebuilt without this measure, and without anything built from the same numbers or measuring the same thing. So it never predicts itself under another name. The figures use the 75 countries reporting all of them, and 71 candidate measures.
This shows how much it moves with the others. It does not explain anything. Measures that move together end up on the same pattern whether or not anything connects them. And the countries here are the best-documented ones. A high figure means this measure is largely predictable from the others, not that they produce it.
| Patterns used | Share of this measure accounted for | Added by this pattern |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | 70% | — |
| 2 | 71% | +1% |
| 3 | 72% | +1% |
| 4 | 72% | +0% |
| 5 | 73% | +1% |
| 6 | 75% | +2% |
How it differs by category
This compares the measure across groups of countries, such as those sharing a main religion, instead of against another number. The figure is the share of the differences between countries on this measure that lies between the groups, on a scale from 0 to 1. It is shown before and after adjusting for national income.
The “between groups” figure runs from 0 (the groups are no different) to 1 (the groups explain all the differences between countries). Groups have no up or down, so this says how much the groups differ, never which way. For that, read the group averages. The figure also tends to rise when there are more groups. So to judge whether it could be chance (q), we shuffle the same labels among the same countries many times and see how often a figure this big turns up. Then we allow for the fact that many measures are checked at once, since with enough checks a few big figures turn up by luck alone. Groups with fewer than 12 countries are left out. And countries that share a label share a lot else. Adjusting for income rules out one third factor, but leaves language, region, legal tradition and history untouched.
| Grouped by | Between groups | After income | q | Groups at each end |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Last European coloniser | 0.52 | 0.10 | 0.671 | best: United Kingdom 446 · worst: Spain 391 PISA points |
| Largest religious group | 0.56 | 0.49 | 0.003 | best: Christians 444 · worst: Muslims 376 PISA points |
Every other pair
Everything else this measure was tested against, apart from the links that hold up and the pairs built from the same numbers. Sorted by the link after adjusting. Search by name; every column sorts. A small adjusted figure is a result too. It says the two do not move together once income is set aside.
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| PISA reading and Religiously unaffiliatedComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.57, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Religiously unaffiliated by country | +0.65 | +0.57 | 0.146 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Population 65+Comparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.57, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Population 65+ by country | +0.69 | +0.57 | 0.089 | 87 | high |
| PISA reading and ResearchersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.55) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Researchers by country | +0.79 | +0.55 | 0.071 | 82 | proxy |
| PISA reading and One-person householdsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.52) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. One-person households by country | +0.72 | +0.52 | 0.067 | 73 | high |
| PISA reading and Muslim shareComparing only countries with similar income it is still -0.51, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Muslim share by country | -0.55 | -0.51 | 0.096 | 87 | independent |
| PISA reading and Frequent prayerLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.48) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Frequent prayer by country | -0.71 | -0.48 | 0.086 | 51 | high |
| PISA reading and Gender Inequality IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.47) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Inequality Index by country | -0.79 | -0.47 | 0.059 | 82 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Alcohol consumptionComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.46, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Alcohol consumption by country | +0.55 | +0.46 | 0.137 | 83 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Recycling rateComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.46, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Recycling rate by country | +0.59 | +0.46 | 0.099 | 35 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Health spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health spending by country | +0.45 | +0.43 | 0.158 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Women's political empowermentComparing only countries with similar income it is still +0.43, but that could easily be chance once we allow for countries in the same region being alike. Women's political empowerment by country | +0.51 | +0.43 | 0.437 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and HDILinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.43) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. HDI by country | +0.81 | +0.43 | 0.125 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Population growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Population growth by country | -0.20 | -0.41 | 0.280 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Confidence in religious institutionsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.40) could easily be chance. Confidence in religious institutions by country | -0.56 | -0.40 | 0.071 | 76 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Political corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.39) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Political corruption by country | -0.74 | -0.39 | 0.085 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Education scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.38) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Education score by country | +0.70 | +0.38 | 0.189 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Free and fair electionsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.37) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Free and fair elections by country | +0.56 | +0.37 | 0.408 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Road traffic deathsLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.36) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Road traffic deaths by country | -0.55 | -0.36 | 0.376 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Male labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Male labor participation by country | -0.32 | -0.35 | 0.256 | 86 | independent |
| PISA reading and Infant mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infant mortality by country | -0.72 | -0.35 | 0.186 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Public order spendingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Public order spending by country | -0.58 | -0.35 | 0.103 | 37 | high |
| PISA reading and Inequality-adjusted HDILinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.35) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Inequality-adjusted HDI by country | +0.80 | +0.35 | 0.051 | 80 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Health scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Health score by country | +0.48 | +0.35 | 0.176 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Hospital bedsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hospital beds by country | +0.42 | +0.34 | 0.122 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Participatory democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.34) could easily be chance. Participatory democracy by country | +0.53 | +0.34 | 0.422 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Voice and accountabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.33) could easily be chance. Voice and accountability by country | +0.62 | +0.33 | 0.376 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Single-parent householdsAlmost no link either way. Single-parent households by country | +0.10 | +0.33 | 0.153 | 73 | independent |
| PISA reading and Fixed broadbandLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.33) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Fixed broadband by country | +0.70 | +0.33 | 0.255 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Liberal democracyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.33) could easily be chance. Liberal democracy by country | +0.56 | +0.33 | 0.422 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Religious attendanceLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.32) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Religious attendance by country | -0.57 | -0.32 | 0.129 | 75 | high |
| PISA reading and Forest areaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Forest area by country | +0.24 | +0.32 | 0.205 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Retirement age, womenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, women by country | +0.13 | +0.32 | 0.535 | 46 | independent |
| PISA reading and Mean years of schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.31) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Mean years of schooling by country | +0.67 | +0.31 | 0.188 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Government expenseCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government expense by country | +0.34 | +0.31 | 0.122 | 79 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Civil liberties (FH)Linked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.31) could easily be chance. Civil liberties (FH) by country | -0.52 | -0.31 | 0.371 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Electoral democracyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Electoral democracy by country | +0.49 | +0.30 | 0.530 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Political rights (FH)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political rights (FH) by country | -0.48 | -0.30 | 0.397 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Infrastructure scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Infrastructure score by country | +0.72 | +0.30 | 0.262 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Anaemia in womenLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Anaemia in women by country | -0.53 | -0.30 | 0.241 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Expected schoolingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Expected schooling by country | +0.62 | +0.30 | 0.130 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and CO2 per capitaCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. CO2 per capita by country | +0.19 | -0.30 | 0.549 | 83 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Governance scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.30) could easily be chance. Governance score by country | +0.52 | +0.30 | 0.511 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Gender scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gender score by country | +0.40 | +0.29 | 0.383 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Adult obesityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Adult obesity by country | -0.25 | -0.29 | 0.220 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Control of corruptionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.29) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Control of corruption by country | +0.72 | +0.29 | 0.194 | 87 | high |
| PISA reading and Migrant share of populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Migrant share of population by country | +0.32 | -0.29 | 0.489 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Corporate tax rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Corporate tax rate by country | +0.11 | +0.28 | 0.446 | 59 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Rule of lawLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Rule of law by country | +0.72 | +0.28 | 0.262 | 87 | high |
| PISA reading and Government consumptionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Government consumption by country | +0.39 | +0.28 | 0.256 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Trust in governmentAlmost no link either way. Trust in government by country | +0.06 | -0.28 | 0.484 | 46 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Interpersonal trustLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.28) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Interpersonal trust by country | +0.61 | +0.28 | 0.273 | 76 | high |
| PISA reading and Informal employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.27) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Informal employment by country | -0.74 | -0.27 | 0.288 | 63 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Corruption Perceptions IndexLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Corruption Perceptions Index by country | +0.71 | +0.26 | 0.440 | 85 | high |
| PISA reading and Under-5 mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.26) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Under-5 mortality by country | -0.69 | -0.26 | 0.270 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Government effectivenessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.25) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Government effectiveness by country | +0.73 | +0.25 | 0.401 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Tax revenueCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Tax revenue by country | +0.35 | +0.25 | 0.481 | 77 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Civil society participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Civil society participation by country | +0.38 | +0.25 | 0.569 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Women in a unionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in a union by country | -0.39 | -0.25 | 0.182 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and GDP growthCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. GDP growth by country | -0.25 | -0.25 | 0.214 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Women in parliamentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women in parliament by country | +0.35 | +0.25 | 0.188 | 83 | independent |
| PISA reading and Women ministersCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women ministers by country | +0.33 | +0.25 | 0.294 | 83 | independent |
| PISA reading and Child stuntingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.24) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Child stunting by country | -0.51 | -0.24 | 0.076 | 64 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Regime typeCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Regime type by country | +0.47 | +0.24 | 0.622 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Regulatory qualityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Regulatory quality by country | +0.70 | +0.22 | 0.401 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Wellbeing scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Wellbeing score by country | +0.66 | +0.22 | 0.099 | 76 | high |
| PISA reading and Secondary enrollmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.22) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Secondary enrollment by country | +0.54 | +0.22 | 0.184 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Tertiary enrollmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tertiary enrollment by country | +0.49 | +0.22 | 0.244 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Primary completionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.21) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Primary completion by country | +0.51 | +0.21 | 0.264 | 78 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Maternal mortalityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Maternal mortality by country | -0.57 | -0.20 | 0.232 | 84 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Births outside marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Births outside marriage by country | -0.22 | -0.20 | 0.572 | 42 | independent |
| PISA reading and Labour scoreLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.20) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Labour score by country | +0.65 | +0.20 | 0.442 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Gender Development IndexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Gender Development Index by country | +0.38 | +0.20 | 0.491 | 85 | high |
| PISA reading and Conflict deathsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Conflict deaths by country | -0.13 | +0.19 | 0.189 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Political civil libertiesCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Political civil liberties by country | +0.32 | +0.19 | 0.711 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Freedom of expressionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of expression by country | +0.30 | +0.19 | 0.694 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Female labor participationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Female labor participation by country | +0.45 | +0.19 | 0.520 | 86 | independent |
| PISA reading and Birth registrationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Birth registration by country | +0.45 | +0.19 | 0.344 | 80 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Freedom of associationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Freedom of association by country | +0.28 | +0.18 | 0.740 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Adult literacyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adult literacy by country | +0.43 | +0.18 | 0.402 | 51 | high |
| PISA reading and Christian shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Christian share by country | +0.19 | +0.17 | 0.461 | 87 | independent |
| PISA reading and Out-of-pocket health spendingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.17) could easily be chance. Out-of-pocket health spending by country | -0.61 | -0.17 | 0.447 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Marriage rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Marriage rate by country | -0.11 | -0.17 | 0.367 | 45 | independent |
| PISA reading and Basic sanitationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic sanitation by country | +0.47 | +0.16 | 0.120 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Adolescent fertilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.16) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Adolescent fertility by country | -0.57 | -0.16 | 0.389 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Public social spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Public social spending by country | +0.41 | +0.16 | 0.286 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Age at childbearingLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.16) could easily be chance. Age at childbearing by country | +0.61 | +0.16 | 0.279 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Extreme poverty rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Extreme poverty rate by country | -0.49 | -0.16 | 0.459 | 79 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Employment in agricultureLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.16) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Employment in agriculture by country | -0.58 | -0.16 | 0.161 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and PhysiciansCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Physicians by country | +0.50 | +0.16 | 0.300 | 84 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Life expectancyLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (+0.15) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life expectancy by country | +0.67 | +0.15 | 0.664 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Active labour market spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Active labour market spending by country | +0.21 | -0.15 | 0.467 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Vulnerable employmentLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, what remains (-0.14) could easily be chance. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Vulnerable employment by country | -0.60 | -0.14 | 0.529 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Tuberculosis incidenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Tuberculosis incidence by country | -0.40 | -0.14 | 0.377 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Education spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Education spending by country | +0.15 | +0.13 | 0.267 | 84 | independent |
| PISA reading and Out of school, primaryCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Out of school, primary by country | -0.34 | -0.13 | 0.504 | 86 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Divorce rate (UN)Almost no link either way. Divorce rate (UN) by country | +0.07 | +0.13 | 0.635 | 68 | independent |
| PISA reading and Refugees originatingAlmost no link either way. Refugees originating by country | -0.06 | +0.12 | 0.402 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Pre-trial detainee shareCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Pre-trial detainee share by country | -0.21 | -0.12 | 0.604 | 85 | independent |
| PISA reading and HIV prevalenceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. HIV prevalence by country | -0.19 | +0.11 | 0.701 | 64 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Equality scoreCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Equality score by country | +0.37 | +0.10 | 0.410 | 79 | high |
| PISA reading and DTP3 immunisationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. DTP3 immunisation by country | +0.36 | +0.10 | 0.637 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Youth not in work or studyCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Youth not in work or study by country | -0.47 | -0.10 | 0.558 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Married by 18Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Married by 18 by country | -0.40 | -0.09 | 0.661 | 51 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Gini indexCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Gini index by country | -0.33 | -0.09 | 0.435 | 79 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Armed conflict presentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Armed conflict present by country | -0.31 | -0.08 | 0.765 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Hours workedCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Hours worked by country | -0.22 | +0.08 | 0.602 | 37 | high |
| PISA reading and Homicide rateCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Homicide rate by country | -0.19 | +0.08 | 0.594 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Skilled birth attendanceCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Skilled birth attendance by country | +0.24 | +0.08 | 0.360 | 77 | high |
| PISA reading and Food insecurityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Food insecurity by country | -0.59 | -0.08 | 0.348 | 77 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Basic water accessLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Basic water access by country | +0.50 | +0.08 | 0.711 | 86 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Slum share of urban populationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Slum share of urban population by country | -0.50 | -0.07 | 0.267 | 83 | high |
| PISA reading and Protected landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Protected land by country | +0.19 | -0.06 | 0.800 | 85 | independent |
| PISA reading and Pupil-teacher ratioLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Pupil-teacher ratio by country | -0.53 | -0.06 | 0.700 | 81 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Compulsory schoolingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Compulsory schooling by country | -0.10 | -0.06 | 0.726 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and RedistributionCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Redistribution by country | +0.34 | +0.06 | 0.821 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Military spendingAlmost no link either way. Military spending by country | -0.01 | +0.06 | 0.862 | 81 | independent |
| PISA reading and Mobile subscriptionsCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Mobile subscriptions by country | +0.28 | +0.06 | 0.747 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Trade opennessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Trade openness by country | +0.26 | -0.06 | 0.764 | 84 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Premature NCD mortalityCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Premature NCD mortality by country | -0.44 | -0.05 | 0.856 | 84 | high |
| PISA reading and Electricity accessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Electricity access by country | +0.28 | +0.05 | 0.389 | 86 | high |
| PISA reading and Tobacco useAlmost no link either way. Tobacco use by country | -0.08 | +0.05 | 0.763 | 82 | independent |
| PISA reading and Family benefits spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Family benefits spending by country | +0.18 | -0.05 | 0.761 | 42 | independent |
| PISA reading and Environment scoreAlmost no link either way. Environment score by country | +0.01 | -0.05 | 0.872 | 85 | moderate |
| PISA reading and FDI inflowsAlmost no link either way. FDI inflows by country | -0.04 | -0.05 | 0.701 | 87 | independent |
| PISA reading and Marriage rate (UN)Could easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Marriage rate (UN) by country | -0.25 | -0.05 | 0.911 | 72 | independent |
| PISA reading and Old-age spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Old-age spending by country | +0.15 | +0.04 | 0.892 | 42 | independent |
| PISA reading and Divorce rateAlmost no link either way. Divorce rate by country | -0.03 | +0.04 | 0.649 | 44 | independent |
| PISA reading and Life satisfactionLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Life satisfaction by country | +0.52 | +0.04 | 0.821 | 85 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Agricultural landCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Agricultural land by country | -0.25 | -0.04 | 0.754 | 85 | independent |
| PISA reading and Women in managementAlmost no link either way. Women in management by country | -0.04 | +0.04 | 0.889 | 73 | moderate |
| PISA reading and InflationAlmost no link either way. Inflation by country | -0.08 | -0.03 | 0.800 | 87 | independent |
| PISA reading and UnemploymentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment by country | -0.30 | -0.02 | 0.893 | 86 | independent |
| PISA reading and Children with one parentAlmost no link either way. Children with one parent by country | +0.06 | +0.02 | 0.938 | 38 | independent |
| PISA reading and UrbanizationCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Urbanization by country | +0.36 | +0.02 | 0.861 | 87 | high |
| PISA reading and Political stabilityLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Political stability by country | +0.54 | +0.02 | 0.888 | 87 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Aid givenCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Aid given by country | +0.19 | +0.02 | 0.947 | 45 | high |
| PISA reading and Primary enrollmentAlmost no link either way. Primary enrollment by country | -0.05 | -0.02 | 0.948 | 86 | independent |
| PISA reading and UndernourishmentCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Undernourishment by country | -0.36 | -0.01 | 0.732 | 81 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Women's age at first marriageCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Women's age at first marriage by country | +0.22 | +0.01 | 0.959 | 40 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Internet usersLinked across countries, but mostly as richer countries differ from poorer ones: comparing only countries with similar income, almost nothing remains. Both mostly measure national income in another way, so only the adjusted figure is worth reading. Internet users by country | +0.51 | -0.01 | 0.940 | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and Retirement age, menCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Retirement age, men by country | -0.18 | +0.01 | 0.977 | 46 | independent |
| PISA reading and Unemployment benefit spendingCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Unemployment benefit spending by country | +0.12 | -0.01 | 0.938 | 39 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Self-reported happinessCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Self-reported happiness by country | +0.26 | -0.01 | 0.960 | 76 | moderate |
| PISA reading and Market-income GiniCould easily be chance once only countries with similar income are compared. Market-income Gini by country | -0.13 | +0.00 | 0.999 | 42 | moderate |
| PISA reading and GDP per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (PPP) by country | +0.68 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and GNI per capita (PPP)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GNI per capita (PPP) by country | +0.69 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
| PISA reading and GDP per capita (market)One side of this pair is national income itself, the thing the other figures adjust for. Adjusting income for income leaves nothing, so there is no adjusted figure. The unadjusted link shows how closely the other measure follows income. GDP per capita (market) by country | +0.67 | — | — | 87 | proxy |
Source
OECD · via Our World in Data
CC BY 4.0 (OECD terms and conditions) · licence terms · updated annual, except the snapshots noted per indicator
OECD databases as named on each indicator: PISA, Social Expenditure Database (SOCX), Income Distribution Database, Development Assistance Committee statistics, Family Database, Government at a Glance, Corporate Tax Statistics, employment and environment statistics