placestats

Mean years of schooling vs. Primary completion

Fades after adjusting for income

Across 161 countries, Mean years of schooling and Primary completion rise and fall together at r = +0.76 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) shrinks it to +0.37, which could easily be chance (q = 0.14, allowing for the many pairs tested, and allowing for countries in the same region being alike). So the first figure mostly shows richer countries differing from poorer ones, not a link between these two things.

Comparing countries across the middle half of primary completion, 82.1% to 99.5% of children, mean years of schooling is better by 2.53 years at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 1.01 years.

Link before adjusting (r)+0.763p = 6.6e-32 · 161 countries
After adjusting for national income+0.367p = 1.8e-6 · likely range [+0.22, +0.49]
p, allowing for regions0.003standard error 0.076 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.143across 12,497 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Mean years of schooling · yearslink with income +0.82 · proxy
Primary completion · % of childrenlink with income +0.83 · proxy

Both of these rise and fall closely with national income, so a strong link between them before adjusting was close to certain. Read the adjusted figure, not the first one.

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

Mean years of schooling · years →Primary completion · % of children →1.4114.328.8%100%Afghanistan: 2.51 years, 55.4% of childrenAngola: 5.96 years, 65.2% of childrenAlbania: 10.2 years, 97.4% of childrenArgentina: 11.2 years, 96.7% of childrenArmenia: 11.3 years, 99.5% of childrenAustralia: 12.9 years, 99.5% of childrenAustria: 12.4 years, 100% of childrenAzerbaijan: 11.1 years, 98.4% of childrenBurundi: 3.47 years, 60.5% of childrenBelgium: 12.7 years, 98.9% of childrenBenin: 3.19 years, 70.1% of childrenBurkina Faso: 2.27 years, 72.2% of childrenBangladesh: 6.79 years, 90.8% of childrenBulgaria: 11.5 years, 99.1% of childrenBosnia and Herzegovina: 11 years, 99.8% of childrenBelarus: 12.3 years, 99.8% of childrenBelize: 8.76 years, 90.2% of childrenBolivia: 10 years, 98.5% of childrenBrazil: 8.43 years, 93% of childrenBarbados: 9.93 years, 99.5% of childrenBhutan: 5.84 years, 93.6% of childrenBotswana: 10.5 years, 99% of childrenCentral African Republic: 3.99 years, 30.8% of childrenCanada: 13.9 years, 99.9% of childrenSwitzerland: 13.9 years, 99.8% of childrenChile: 11.3 years, 97.4% of childrenChina: 8.04 years, 99% of childrenCote d'Ivoire: 4.87 years, 78.8% of childrenCameroon: 6.57 years, 77.8% of childrenCongo, Dem. Rep.: 7.38 years, 68.4% of childrenCongo, Rep.: 8.32 years, 93.9% of childrenColombia: 9.03 years, 95.5% of childrenComoros: 6.01 years, 86.1% of childrenCosta Rica: 8.84 years, 98.9% of childrenCyprus: 12.6 years, 99% of childrenCzechia: 13 years, 99.9% of childrenGermany: 14.3 years, 100% of childrenDjibouti: 3.95 years, 89.4% of childrenDenmark: 13 years, 99.9% of childrenDominican Republic: 9.44 years, 96.1% of childrenAlgeria: 7.42 years, 96.5% of childrenEcuador: 8.97 years, 99.5% of childrenEgypt, Arab Rep.: 10.1 years, 96.3% of childrenSpain: 10.8 years, 98.6% of childrenEstonia: 13.6 years, 99.5% of childrenEthiopia: 2.4 years, 64.6% of childrenFinland: 13 years, 99.7% of childrenFiji: 10.4 years, 98.9% of childrenFrance: 11.8 years, 99.6% of childrenGabon: 9.69 years, 74.3% of childrenUnited Kingdom: 13.5 years, 99.9% of childrenGeorgia: 12.7 years, 99.8% of childrenGhana: 7.11 years, 79.1% of childrenGuinea: 2.49 years, 61% of childrenGambia, The: 4.67 years, 74.8% of childrenGuinea-Bissau: 3.67 years, 30.5% of childrenEquatorial Guinea: 8.28 years, 73.6% of childrenGreece: 11.6 years, 99.3% of childrenGuatemala: 5.85 years, 87% of childrenGuyana: 8.7 years, 99.2% of childrenHonduras: 7.51 years, 89.6% of childrenCroatia: 12.1 years, 99.8% of childrenHaiti: 5.38 years, 50.5% of childrenHungary: 12.3 years, 99.2% of childrenIndonesia: 8.7 years, 98.9% of childrenIndia: 6.88 years, 96.5% of childrenIreland: 11.7 years, 99.8% of childrenIran, Islamic Rep.: 10.8 years, 96.7% of childrenIraq: 6.78 years, 83.3% of childrenIceland: 13.9 years, 97.4% of childrenIsrael: 13.5 years, 100% of childrenItaly: 10.8 years, 99.9% of childrenJamaica: 9.96 years, 99.4% of childrenJordan: 10.2 years, 98.5% of childrenJapan: 12.7 years, 100% of childrenKazakhstan: 12.5 years, 99.7% of childrenKenya: 8.62 years, 88.4% of childrenKyrgyz Republic: 12.1 years, 99.4% of childrenCambodia: 5.2 years, 82.7% of childrenKiribati: 9.13 years, 94.4% of childrenKorea, Rep.: 12.7 years, 100% of childrenLao PDR: 6.06 years, 70.1% of childrenLiberia: 6.17 years, 29.8% of childrenSt. Lucia: 8.61 years, 99.6% of childrenLesotho: 7.73 years, 79.8% of childrenLithuania: 13.6 years, 99.7% of childrenLuxembourg: 12.6 years, 98.6% of childrenLatvia: 13.4 years, 99.6% of childrenMorocco: 6.2 years, 84.6% of childrenMoldova: 11.8 years, 98.8% of childrenMadagascar: 4.59 years, 54% of childrenMaldives: 7.41 years, 99.4% of childrenMexico: 9.35 years, 98.2% of childrenNorth Macedonia: 10.2 years, 99.5% of childrenMali: 1.63 years, 50% of childrenMalta: 12.4 years, 98.1% of childrenMyanmar: 6.38 years, 89.8% of childrenMontenegro: 12.8 years, 98.9% of childrenMongolia: 9.42 years, 99.7% of childrenMozambique: 4.59 years, 53.5% of childrenMauritania: 4.85 years, 51.8% of childrenMauritius: 10.1 years, 99.9% of childrenMalawi: 5.24 years, 57.7% of childrenMalaysia: 11.1 years, 99.8% of childrenNamibia: 7.27 years, 86.3% of childrenNiger: 1.41 years, 77.5% of childrenNigeria: 7.59 years, 76.8% of childrenNicaragua: 9.93 years, 77.7% of childrenNetherlands: 12.7 years, 99.8% of childrenNorway: 13.1 years, 99.8% of childrenNepal: 4.5 years, 90.8% of childrenNaoero: 9.45 years, 89.2% of childrenPakistan: 4.32 years, 59.5% of childrenPanama: 10.8 years, 95.1% of childrenPeru: 10.2 years, 98.1% of childrenPhilippines: 9.98 years, 96.2% of childrenPapua New Guinea: 4.96 years, 66% of childrenPoland: 13.2 years, 99.7% of childrenPortugal: 9.7 years, 99.5% of childrenParaguay: 8.93 years, 94.9% of childrenWest Bank and Gaza: 10.1 years, 99.6% of childrenQatar: 10.8 years, 100% of childrenRomania: 11.6 years, 99.1% of childrenRussian Federation: 12.4 years, 99.7% of childrenRwanda: 4.88 years, 71.9% of childrenSudan: 3.96 years, 75.6% of childrenSenegal: 2.93 years, 65.7% of childrenSierra Leone: 3.54 years, 68.8% of childrenEl Salvador: 7.3 years, 93.7% of childrenSomalia, Fed. Rep.: 1.9 years, 28.8% of childrenSerbia: 11.6 years, 99.7% of childrenSao Tome and Principe: 5.99 years, 93.7% of childrenSuriname: 8.43 years, 91.3% of childrenSlovak Republic: 13.1 years, 99.8% of childrenSlovenia: 13 years, 99.5% of childrenSweden: 12.7 years, 100% of childrenEswatini: 8.69 years, 82.5% of childrenSyrian Arab Republic: 5.94 years, 98.1% of childrenChad: 2.33 years, 37.8% of childrenTogo: 5.86 years, 87.8% of childrenThailand: 9.04 years, 99.2% of childrenTajikistan: 11.3 years, 98.8% of childrenTurkmenistan: 11.2 years, 99.8% of childrenTimor-Leste: 6.23 years, 82.1% of childrenTonga: 10.9 years, 98.4% of childrenTrinidad and Tobago: 10.8 years, 98% of childrenTunisia: 7.59 years, 96.9% of childrenTurkiye: 8.99 years, 98% of childrenTuvalu: 10.8 years, 98.8% of childrenTanzania: 6.07 years, 75.7% of childrenUganda: 6.32 years, 30.4% of childrenUkraine: 11.1 years, 99.6% of childrenUruguay: 10.5 years, 97.9% of childrenUnited States: 13.9 years, 100% of childrenUzbekistan: 11.9 years, 99.8% of childrenViet Nam: 8.98 years, 98.6% of childrenVanuatu: 7.18 years, 79.8% of childrenSamoa: 11.3 years, 98.5% of childrenSouth Africa: 11.6 years, 97.1% of childrenZambia: 7.4 years, 67.4% of childrenZimbabwe: 8.93 years, 86.9% of childrenCAFCHEDEUDJIGNBLBRNERNPLSOMTCDUGAUSA

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

MethodrpCountries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted+0.7636.6e-32161
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted+0.8539.0e-47161
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income+0.3671.8e-6161
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income+0.5153.3e-12161

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 161 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.396 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from +0.347 (without TJK) to +0.405 (without LBR). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: LBR (+0.038).

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

nr
East Asia & Pacific22+0.68
Europe & Central Asia48+0.30
Latin America & Caribbean25+0.35
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan15+0.58
Sub-Saharan Africa44+0.27

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

nr
Poorest third54+0.43
Middle third53+0.50
Richest third54+0.30

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
Christians101+0.27
Muslims41+0.58

By last european coloniser

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
France24+0.20
Never a European colony19+0.32
Spain19+0.21
United Kingdom47+0.46

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = +0.474 after dropping 12 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 34years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

Within countries over time, there is no link that is clearly more than chance (r = -0.146, comparing each country only with itself over the years, and each year only with the same year elsewhere). Whatever the cross-country picture shows, countries whose mean years of schooling moved did not tend to see their primary completion move with it.

Across countries (adjusted)+0.367for comparison
Within countries+0.536each country vs itself
…and vs the same year elsewhere-0.146q = 0.072 · 163 countries
Year-on-year changes-0.022q = 0.668
The direction flips. Comparing each country only with itself gives +0.54. Also taking out what happened to the whole world each year gives -0.15. So the first figure was picking up a trend both measures share with worldwide progress, not a link between them.
Read with care.
  • Almost all of this indicator's variation is between countries, not within them, so the within-country estimate rests on a small part of the data.
  • Much of the within-country association disappears once shared global year effects are removed, which points to a common worldwide trend rather than a country-level relationship.

5,270 country-years (one country in one year), 163 countries, 1990–2023, about 32 years each on average. Share of the variation that happens within countries over time: 10% for Mean years of schooling, 10% for Primary completion. The margins of error allow for each country appearing many times, and for each year’s value being close to the year before.

Year-to-year changes are a cautious test, not a final answer. Looking only at changes from one year to the next removes each country’s own trends. But it also makes measurement mistakes louder, which pulls the results toward zero. A near-zero result here is weak evidence of no link, not proof.

With one measure years behind the other

0.40−0.4-100+10years Primary completion trails Mean years of schooling →lag -10: r = 0.156 (n = 3,868)lag -9: r = 0.121 (n = 4,012)lag -8: r = 0.087 (n = 4,154)lag -7: r = 0.054 (n = 4,296)lag -6: r = 0.022 (n = 4,438)lag -5: r = -0.008 (n = 4,580)lag -4: r = -0.038 (n = 4,718)lag -3: r = -0.067 (n = 4,856)lag -2: r = -0.095 (n = 4,994)lag -1: r = -0.121 (n = 5,132)lag +0: r = -0.146 (n = 5,270)lag +1: r = -0.159 (n = 5,270)lag +2: r = -0.172 (n = 5,270)lag +3: r = -0.197 (n = 5,107)lag +4: r = -0.223 (n = 4,944)lag +5: r = -0.251 (n = 4,781)lag +6: r = -0.278 (n = 4,618)lag +7: r = -0.303 (n = 4,455)lag +8: r = -0.325 (n = 4,292)lag +9: r = -0.344 (n = 4,129)lag +10: r = -0.360 (n = 3,966)

Same year (lag 0): -0.146. A peak away from zero does not show which comes first. These series change slowly — this year’s value is close to last year’s. That makes the curve smooth and nearly symmetric, whatever produced the data. Even a sharp peak at one lag (a gap of some years) would not prove that one measure changes the other.

This curve peaks at the edge of the window (lag +10), so it is still drifting where the search stops. That pattern usually reflects a slow trend left over in the data, not a link with real timing. The peak value should not be read as the “true” link at the right lag.

The data


years
% of children		Years
Germany DEU14.3100%2023, 2025
Switzerland CHE13.999.8%2023, 2025
United States USA13.9100%2023, 2025
Iceland ISL13.997.4%2023, 2025
Canada CAN13.999.9%2023, 2025
Lithuania LTU13.699.7%2023, 2025
Estonia EST13.699.5%2023, 2025
Israel ISR13.5100%2023, 2025
United Kingdom GBR13.599.9%2023, 2025
Latvia LVA13.499.6%2023, 2025
Poland POL13.299.7%2023, 2025
Norway NOR13.199.8%2023, 2025
Slovak Republic SVK13.199.8%2023, 2025
Denmark DNK1399.9%2023, 2025
Finland FIN1399.7%2023, 2025

United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report 2025
UNESCO Institute for Statistics, SDG indicator 4.1.2 modelled estimates

Sources

Mean years of schooling

Mean years of schooling, adults aged 25 and over

United Nations Development Programme, Human Development Report Office · via Our World in Data · CC BY 3.0 IGO · updated annual

The schooling adults actually completed, decades ago for most of them. Expected schooling looks ahead at children; this looks back at adults. It is the one to read for the education of the workforce rather than of children.

Primary completion

Primary completion rate, modelled estimate

UNESCO Institute for Statistics · via Our World in Data · CC BY 3.0 IGO · updated annual

The share of children who finish primary school. UNESCO estimates it from household surveys and uses a statistical model to fill in across years. It is not the World Bank's primary completion rate, which is a ratio built from school enrolment counts of children entering the last grade. This one asks whether the child actually finished.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2023–2025. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Mean years of schooling and Primary completion

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Mean years of schooling changes Primary completion, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.

More links with Mean years of schooling or Primary completion