placestats

Fixed broadband vs. Religiously unaffiliated

Holds up after adjusting for income

A country is not a person. Countries where more people are counted as belonging to this group also tend to differ on the other measure, and that is all. It does not follow that the people in the group are the people with the different score. Making that leap is called the ecological fallacy: reading a pattern across places as a fact about individual people. It is the most common misuse of this kind of data. Religion also varies strongly with region, history and national income, so much of what looks religious here is really those. That is what the adjusted figures are for. The religion shares are estimates for two years only, and the survey questions are asked in rounds that can be ten years apart.

Across 183 countries, Fixed broadband and Religiously unaffiliated rise and fall together at r = +0.59 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) shrinks it to +0.44 (q = 0.014, allowing for the many pairs tested). Much of the first figure is that both measures rise with national income, but a moderate positive link remains. Caution: direction is not consistent across regions.

Comparing countries across the middle half of religiously unaffiliated, 0.332% to 13.8% of population, fixed broadband is better by 7.4 per 100 people at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 3.5 per 100 people.

Link before adjusting (r)+0.591p = 1.4e-18 · 183 countries
After adjusting for national income+0.437p = 6.7e-10 · likely range [+0.31, +0.55]
p, allowing for regions0.021standard error 0.142 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.014across 12,497 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Fixed broadband · per 100 peoplelink with income +0.88 · proxy
Religiously unaffiliated · % of populationlink with income +0.51 · moderate

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

Fixed broadband · per 100 people →Religiously unaffiliated · % of population →048.90%89.6%Aruba: 17.5 per 100 people, 5.87% of populationAfghanistan: 0.0801 per 100 people, 0.00846% of populationAngola: 0.363 per 100 people, 6.11% of populationAlbania: 24.9 per 100 people, 7.65% of populationUnited Arab Emirates: 40.8 per 100 people, 0.336% of populationArgentina: 26.1 per 100 people, 9.23% of populationArmenia: 20.3 per 100 people, 1.18% of populationAustralia: 36.5 per 100 people, 42.3% of populationAustria: 30.1 per 100 people, 22.4% of populationAzerbaijan: 21.8 per 100 people, 4.76% of populationBurundi: 0.0203 per 100 people, 1.25% of populationBelgium: 44.2 per 100 people, 39% of populationBenin: 0.277 per 100 people, 4.89% of populationBurkina Faso: 0.851 per 100 people, 0.576% of populationBangladesh: 8.09 per 100 people, 0% of populationBulgaria: 37 per 100 people, 10% of populationBahrain: 17 per 100 people, 0.32% of populationBahamas, The: 25.3 per 100 people, 1.86% of populationBosnia and Herzegovina: 29.4 per 100 people, 1.05% of populationBelarus: 36.3 per 100 people, 13.8% of populationBelize: 9.75 per 100 people, 15.6% of populationBolivia: 12.1 per 100 people, 9.55% of populationBrazil: 24.1 per 100 people, 13.5% of populationBarbados: 37.5 per 100 people, 20.1% of populationBrunei Darussalam: 21.2 per 100 people, 0.156% of populationBhutan: 2.92 per 100 people, 0.0437% of populationBotswana: 7.44 per 100 people, 14.7% of populationCentral African Republic: 0.0161 per 100 people, 0.452% of populationCanada: 42.5 per 100 people, 34.6% of populationSwitzerland: 47 per 100 people, 30.8% of populationChile: 23.7 per 100 people, 30.3% of populationChina: 47.2 per 100 people, 89.6% of populationCote d'Ivoire: 1.6 per 100 people, 5.56% of populationCameroon: 2.13 per 100 people, 2.08% of populationCongo, Dem. Rep.: 0.032 per 100 people, 1.18% of populationCongo, Rep.: 1.27 per 100 people, 5.2% of populationColombia: 17.2 per 100 people, 9.94% of populationComoros: 0.388 per 100 people, 0.13% of populationCabo Verde: 8.31 per 100 people, 20.6% of populationCosta Rica: 23.3 per 100 people, 10.1% of populationCuracao: 31.5 per 100 people, 5.93% of populationCyprus: 37.6 per 100 people, 6.57% of populationCzechia: 38.9 per 100 people, 72.8% of populationGermany: 45.6 per 100 people, 36.1% of populationDjibouti: 1.47 per 100 people, 1.1% of populationDenmark: 43.4 per 100 people, 16.6% of populationDominican Republic: 11.2 per 100 people, 19.6% of populationAlgeria: 13.3 per 100 people, 1.27% of populationEcuador: 17.2 per 100 people, 8.39% of populationEgypt, Arab Rep.: 11.7 per 100 people, 0.00465% of populationSpain: 39.2 per 100 people, 26.4% of populationEstonia: 35.4 per 100 people, 43.6% of populationEthiopia: 0.594 per 100 people, 0.0623% of populationFinland: 36.5 per 100 people, 25% of populationFiji: 1.8 per 100 people, 0.251% of populationFrance: 48.9 per 100 people, 42.6% of populationMicronesia, Fed. Sts.: 5.82 per 100 people, 0.685% of populationGabon: 4.69 per 100 people, 5.76% of populationUnited Kingdom: 42.2 per 100 people, 40.2% of populationGeorgia: 30.4 per 100 people, 0.988% of populationGhana: 0.665 per 100 people, 1.07% of populationGuinea: 0.00628 per 100 people, 1.32% of populationGambia, The: 0.519 per 100 people, 0.0179% of populationGuinea-Bissau: 0.386 per 100 people, 11.6% of populationEquatorial Guinea: 0.101 per 100 people, 4.99% of populationGreece: 44.7 per 100 people, 4.74% of populationGrenada: 29.8 per 100 people, 5.77% of populationGuatemala: 5.34 per 100 people, 6.02% of populationGuyana: 12.9 per 100 people, 2.91% of populationHong Kong SAR, China: 40.3 per 100 people, 71.4% of populationHonduras: 4.58 per 100 people, 9.74% of populationCroatia: 29.6 per 100 people, 6.66% of populationHaiti: 0.307 per 100 people, 9.43% of populationHungary: 37.5 per 100 people, 27% of populationIndonesia: 4.92 per 100 people, 0.092% of populationIndia: 3.15 per 100 people, 0.00326% of populationIreland: 32.3 per 100 people, 15.6% of populationIran, Islamic Rep.: 12.1 per 100 people, 0.00005% of populationIraq: 17.6 per 100 people, 0.000799% of populationIceland: 37.5 per 100 people, 19.8% of populationIsrael: 29.2 per 100 people, 4.37% of populationItaly: 31.8 per 100 people, 13.3% of populationJamaica: 16 per 100 people, 23.7% of populationJordan: 7.02 per 100 people, 0.0474% of populationJapan: 38.6 per 100 people, 57.5% of populationKazakhstan: 15.3 per 100 people, 2.53% of populationKenya: 3.04 per 100 people, 1.6% of populationKyrgyz Republic: 7.8 per 100 people, 1.17% of populationCambodia: 4.15 per 100 people, 0.079% of populationKiribati: 0.0349 per 100 people, 0.1% of populationKorea, Rep.: 47.8 per 100 people, 48.3% of populationKuwait: 1.01 per 100 people, 0.248% of populationLao PDR: 2.72 per 100 people, 0.0528% of populationLebanon: 7.29 per 100 people, 0.0188% of populationLiberia: 0.275 per 100 people, 1.07% of populationLibya: 4.52 per 100 people, 0.0494% of populationSt. Lucia: 13.6 per 100 people, 5.9% of populationSri Lanka: 8.47 per 100 people, 0.0699% of populationLesotho: 0.379 per 100 people, 1.66% of populationLithuania: 27.8 per 100 people, 7.08% of populationLuxembourg: 40.3 per 100 people, 25.3% of populationLatvia: 25.8 per 100 people, 17% of populationMacao SAR, China: 29.9 per 100 people, 67.6% of populationMorocco: 7.3 per 100 people, 0.131% of populationMoldova: 29.6 per 100 people, 0.234% of populationMadagascar: 0.124 per 100 people, 22.3% of populationMaldives: 19.6 per 100 people, 0.068% of populationMexico: 21.7 per 100 people, 10.6% of populationNorth Macedonia: 29.9 per 100 people, 0.516% of populationMali: 0.774 per 100 people, 2.53% of populationMalta: 44.5 per 100 people, 5.24% of populationMyanmar: 2.87 per 100 people, 0.0586% of populationMontenegro: 32.3 per 100 people, 1.14% of populationMongolia: 15.8 per 100 people, 40.8% of populationMozambique: 0.142 per 100 people, 14.3% of populationMauritania: 0.947 per 100 people, 0.107% of populationMauritius: 28 per 100 people, 0.753% of populationMalawi: 0.0864 per 100 people, 0.941% of populationMalaysia: 13.5 per 100 people, 0.845% of populationNamibia: 2.83 per 100 people, 5.63% of populationNiger: 0.111 per 100 people, 1.22% of populationNigeria: 0.0787 per 100 people, 0.379% of populationNicaragua: 5.78 per 100 people, 13.3% of populationNetherlands: 43 per 100 people, 54.1% of populationNorway: 45.2 per 100 people, 22.5% of populationNepal: 10.1 per 100 people, 0.00129% of populationNew Zealand: 38 per 100 people, 51.4% of populationOman: 11.1 per 100 people, 0.14% of populationPakistan: 1.47 per 100 people, 0.0127% of populationPanama: 18.1 per 100 people, 6.21% of populationPeru: 11.7 per 100 people, 5.11% of populationPhilippines: 7.14 per 100 people, 0.0411% of populationPapua New Guinea: 0.233 per 100 people, 0.311% of populationPoland: 25.4 per 100 people, 8.65% of populationPuerto Rico (US): 28 per 100 people, 10.4% of populationPortugal: 45.2 per 100 people, 13.8% of populationParaguay: 12.9 per 100 people, 4.25% of populationWest Bank and Gaza: 8.16 per 100 people, 0% of populationQatar: 11.8 per 100 people, 0.274% of populationRomania: 35.8 per 100 people, 0.94% of populationRussian Federation: 27.1 per 100 people, 20.2% of populationRwanda: 0.596 per 100 people, 1.01% of populationSaudi Arabia: 44.1 per 100 people, 0.112% of populationSudan: 0.0604 per 100 people, 0.563% of populationSenegal: 4.04 per 100 people, 0.0207% of populationSingapore: 27.8 per 100 people, 19.9% of populationSolomon Islands: 0.107 per 100 people, 0.328% of populationSierra Leone: 0.00227 per 100 people, 0.012% of populationEl Salvador: 12.5 per 100 people, 11.9% of populationSomalia, Fed. Rep.: 0.723 per 100 people, 0.0161% of populationSerbia: 33.4 per 100 people, 4.01% of populationSao Tome and Principe: 2.99 per 100 people, 9.69% of populationSuriname: 18.8 per 100 people, 8.11% of populationSlovak Republic: 33.8 per 100 people, 25.3% of populationSlovenia: 34.2 per 100 people, 32.3% of populationSweden: 40.6 per 100 people, 28.9% of populationEswatini: 2.51 per 100 people, 6.16% of populationSeychelles: 31.6 per 100 people, 2.36% of populationSyrian Arab Republic: 6.86 per 100 people, 1.98% of populationChad: 0 per 100 people, 3.13% of populationTogo: 1.42 per 100 people, 8.01% of populationThailand: 14.9 per 100 people, 0.0126% of populationTajikistan: 0.984 per 100 people, 0.0746% of populationTurkmenistan: 5.22 per 100 people, 0.0719% of populationTimor-Leste: 0.006 per 100 people, 0.0639% of populationTonga: 8.17 per 100 people, 0.581% of populationTrinidad and Tobago: 27 per 100 people, 2.45% of populationTunisia: 15 per 100 people, 0.441% of populationTurkiye: 23.4 per 100 people, 2.53% of populationTanzania: 0.246 per 100 people, 3.48% of populationUganda: 0.208 per 100 people, 0.0949% of populationUkraine: 21.7 per 100 people, 15.1% of populationUruguay: 33 per 100 people, 52.4% of populationUnited States: 38.9 per 100 people, 29.7% of populationUzbekistan: 34.7 per 100 people, 0.552% of populationSt. Vincent and the Grenadines: 29.5 per 100 people, 7.86% of populationVirgin Islands (U.S.): 10.1 per 100 people, 4.03% of populationViet Nam: 23.7 per 100 people, 67.7% of populationVanuatu: 1.16 per 100 people, 1.37% of populationSamoa: 0.878 per 100 people, 0.0642% of populationSouth Africa: 5.35 per 100 people, 3.12% of populationZambia: 0.79 per 100 people, 0.0598% of populationZimbabwe: 1.94 per 100 people, 10.5% of populationAFGARECHNCZEGRCHKGMACSAUSLETLSVNM

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

MethodrpCountries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted+0.5911.4e-18183
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted+0.5703.9e-17183
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income+0.4376.7e-10183
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income+0.2907.2e-5183

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 183 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.153 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from +0.396 (without CHN) to +0.468 (without MAC). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: CHN (-0.041).

Fragile: this link may not hold up.
  • direction is not consistent across regions

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

nr
East Asia & Pacific27+0.82
Europe & Central Asia48+0.31
Latin America & Caribbean32+0.34
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan22+0.44
Sub-Saharan Africa46-0.06

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

nr
Poorest third61-0.03
Middle third61+0.36
Richest third61+0.50

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
Christians112+0.35
Muslims49+0.11

By last european coloniser

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
France25+0.67
Never a European colony21+0.58
Spain20+0.49
United Kingdom58+0.49

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = +0.325 after dropping 18 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 0years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

Not enough history inside each country to look at this over time. That needs countries measured for several years in a row, and at least one of these measures is measured too rarely.

The data


per 100 people
% of population		Years
France FRA48.942.6%2024, 2020
Korea, Rep. KOR47.848.3%2024, 2020
China CHN47.289.6%2024, 2020
Switzerland CHE4730.8%2024, 2020
Germany DEU45.636.1%2024, 2020
Portugal PRT45.213.8%2024, 2020
Norway NOR45.222.5%2024, 2020
Greece GRC44.74.74%2024, 2020
Malta MLT44.55.24%2024, 2020
Belgium BEL44.239%2024, 2020
Saudi Arabia SAU44.10.112%2024, 2020
Denmark DNK43.416.6%2024, 2020
Netherlands NLD4354.1%2024, 2020
Canada CAN42.534.6%2024, 2020
United Kingdom GBR42.240.2%2024, 2020

World Bank, World Development Indicators
Pew Research Center, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2020. Pew Research Center bears no responsibility for the analyses or interpretations of the data presented here.
One of these measures is published under a licence that forbids changes. Values are shown exactly as published and must not be republished in a changed or rescaled form.

Sources

Fixed broadband

Fixed broadband subscriptions (per 100 people)

International Telecommunication Union · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly

Subscriptions, not people. A household line counts once, however many people use it. A country that went straight to mobile data can be well connected with few of these lines. Internet users, already on the site, is the measure of people.

Religiously unaffiliated

Share of the population religiously unaffiliated

Pew Research Center · via Our World in Data · Pew Research Center terms of use, excerpts with attribution · updated decennial · comparable from 2010 only

People who belong to no religion: atheists, agnostics and those who say "nothing in particular". Pew estimated it from censuses and surveys for 2010 and 2020. Belonging is a third thing, beside the attendance and importance measures already here. A country can be almost all affiliated and rarely attend, as much of Europe is. With only two years, nothing here shows a trend. No "better" direction is set.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2020–2024. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Fixed broadband and Religiously unaffiliated

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Fixed broadband changes Religiously unaffiliated, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.

More links with Fixed broadband or Religiously unaffiliated