placestats

Female labor participation vs. Muslim share

Fades after adjusting for income

A country is not a person. Countries where more people are counted as belonging to this group also tend to differ on the other measure, and that is all. It does not follow that the people in the group are the people with the different score. Making that leap is called the ecological fallacy: reading a pattern across places as a fact about individual people. It is the most common misuse of this kind of data. Religion also varies strongly with region, history and national income, so much of what looks religious here is really those. That is what the adjusted figures are for. The religion shares are estimates for two years only, and the survey questions are asked in rounds that can be ten years apart.

Across 177 countries, Female labor participation and Muslim share rise and fall together at r = -0.55 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) leaves r = -0.55, which could easily be chance (q = 0.085, allowing for the many pairs tested, and allowing for countries in the same region being alike).

Comparing countries across the middle half of muslim share, 0.267% to 56.4% of population, female labor participation is 12.4% of women 15+ lower at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 12.8% of women 15+.

Link before adjusting (r)-0.550p = 2.1e-15 · 177 countries
After adjusting for national income-0.552p = 2.0e-15 · likely range [-0.65, -0.44]
p, allowing for regions0.005standard error 0.127 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.085across 12,497 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Female labor participation · % of women 15+link with income +0.07 · independent
Muslim share · % of populationlink with income -0.14 · independent

Neither of these is closely tied to national income, so adjusting for income is a real test here, not a formality.

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

Female labor participation · % of women 15+ →Muslim share · % of population →5.09%82.9%0.00186%99.9%Afghanistan: 5.09% of women 15+, 99.9% of populationAngola: 72.2% of women 15+, 0.256% of populationAlbania: 58.6% of women 15+, 74.5% of populationUnited Arab Emirates: 53% of women 15+, 72.9% of populationArgentina: 52.5% of women 15+, 0.929% of populationArmenia: 51.1% of women 15+, 0.267% of populationAustralia: 62.5% of women 15+, 3.5% of populationAustria: 55.1% of women 15+, 8.3% of populationAzerbaijan: 60.8% of women 15+, 94.7% of populationBurundi: 79.5% of women 15+, 2.99% of populationBelgium: 49.8% of women 15+, 6.81% of populationBenin: 75.2% of women 15+, 31.4% of populationBurkina Faso: 64.1% of women 15+, 67.4% of populationBangladesh: 38.6% of women 15+, 91.1% of populationBulgaria: 50.4% of women 15+, 10.3% of populationBahrain: 42.3% of women 15+, 74% of populationBahamas, The: 70.7% of women 15+, 0.0858% of populationBosnia and Herzegovina: 39.2% of women 15+, 53.6% of populationBelarus: 56.8% of women 15+, 0.262% of populationBelize: 46.5% of women 15+, 0.18% of populationBolivia: 72.9% of women 15+, 0.0098% of populationBrazil: 53.4% of women 15+, 0.0177% of populationBarbados: 61% of women 15+, 0.707% of populationBrunei Darussalam: 54.4% of women 15+, 82.2% of populationBhutan: 56.7% of women 15+, 0.222% of populationBotswana: 63.7% of women 15+, 0.33% of populationCentral African Republic: 65.5% of women 15+, 6.24% of populationCanada: 60.2% of women 15+, 4.89% of populationSwitzerland: 62.2% of women 15+, 6.08% of populationChile: 52.9% of women 15+, 0.067% of populationChina: 59.1% of women 15+, 1.82% of populationCote d'Ivoire: 59.5% of women 15+, 46.3% of populationCameroon: 56.6% of women 15+, 25.2% of populationCongo, Dem. Rep.: 61.8% of women 15+, 1.27% of populationCongo, Rep.: 65.6% of women 15+, 1.46% of populationColombia: 51.6% of women 15+, 0.00393% of populationComoros: 47.6% of women 15+, 98.3% of populationCabo Verde: 50.5% of women 15+, 0.313% of populationCosta Rica: 46% of women 15+, 0.0252% of populationCyprus: 61.2% of women 15+, 24.4% of populationCzechia: 53.5% of women 15+, 0.327% of populationGermany: 55.3% of women 15+, 6.55% of populationDjibouti: 19.4% of women 15+, 97.7% of populationDenmark: 60.8% of women 15+, 4.22% of populationDominican Republic: 53.7% of women 15+, 0.0248% of populationAlgeria: 14.1% of women 15+, 98.4% of populationEcuador: 52.4% of women 15+, 0.0181% of populationEgypt, Arab Rep.: 18.5% of women 15+, 95.2% of populationSpain: 52.8% of women 15+, 3.58% of populationEstonia: 61% of women 15+, 0.598% of populationEthiopia: 58.5% of women 15+, 36.2% of populationFinland: 56.5% of women 15+, 1.61% of populationFiji: 38.5% of women 15+, 5.78% of populationFrance: 51.5% of women 15+, 9.1% of populationGabon: 41.6% of women 15+, 8.64% of populationUnited Kingdom: 57.3% of women 15+, 6.37% of populationGeorgia: 56.7% of women 15+, 10.5% of populationGhana: 55.3% of women 15+, 19.9% of populationGuinea: 42.6% of women 15+, 86.8% of populationGambia, The: 45.5% of women 15+, 97% of populationGuinea-Bissau: 60.3% of women 15+, 56% of populationEquatorial Guinea: 52.6% of women 15+, 4.05% of populationGreece: 44.7% of women 15+, 5.12% of populationGuatemala: 38.3% of women 15+, 0.00271% of populationGuyana: 47.4% of women 15+, 6.5% of populationHong Kong SAR, China: 51.8% of women 15+, 0.268% of populationHonduras: 39.6% of women 15+, 0.00277% of populationCroatia: 47.4% of women 15+, 1.37% of populationHaiti: 58.3% of women 15+, 0.00186% of populationHungary: 54.3% of women 15+, 0.139% of populationIndonesia: 53.7% of women 15+, 87% of populationIndia: 32.4% of women 15+, 15.2% of populationIreland: 59.8% of women 15+, 1.69% of populationIran, Islamic Rep.: 14% of women 15+, 99.8% of populationIraq: 10.9% of women 15+, 99.5% of populationIceland: 70% of women 15+, 1.21% of populationIsrael: 62.3% of women 15+, 14.7% of populationItaly: 40.8% of women 15+, 4.42% of populationJamaica: 63% of women 15+, 0.016% of populationJordan: 16% of women 15+, 97.1% of populationJapan: 55.9% of women 15+, 0.17% of populationKazakhstan: 62.6% of women 15+, 77.9% of populationKenya: 63% of women 15+, 10.9% of populationKyrgyz Republic: 44.1% of women 15+, 91.7% of populationCambodia: 77.4% of women 15+, 2.04% of populationKorea, Rep.: 56.8% of women 15+, 0.31% of populationKuwait: 47.2% of women 15+, 80.2% of populationLao PDR: 61.6% of women 15+, 0.0222% of populationLebanon: 22.2% of women 15+, 67.8% of populationLiberia: 72% of women 15+, 12.7% of populationLibya: 33% of women 15+, 99% of populationSt. Lucia: 62% of women 15+, 0.0949% of populationSri Lanka: 31% of women 15+, 10.2% of populationLesotho: 48.1% of women 15+, 0.218% of populationLithuania: 57.7% of women 15+, 0.0892% of populationLuxembourg: 57.5% of women 15+, 1.83% of populationLatvia: 55.2% of women 15+, 0.67% of populationMacao SAR, China: 63.1% of women 15+, 0.476% of populationMorocco: 19.7% of women 15+, 99.7% of populationMoldova: 72.3% of women 15+, 0.181% of populationMadagascar: 82.9% of women 15+, 1.16% of populationMaldives: 40.7% of women 15+, 94.1% of populationMexico: 47.5% of women 15+, 0.00629% of populationNorth Macedonia: 42.7% of women 15+, 34.7% of populationMali: 52.8% of women 15+, 94.1% of populationMalta: 55.8% of women 15+, 3.64% of populationMyanmar: 40.9% of women 15+, 3.35% of populationMontenegro: 51.2% of women 15+, 21.3% of populationMongolia: 51.5% of women 15+, 3.53% of populationMozambique: 77.1% of women 15+, 19.4% of populationMauritania: 26.2% of women 15+, 99.2% of populationMauritius: 47.5% of women 15+, 17.5% of populationMalawi: 58.2% of women 15+, 11.6% of populationMalaysia: 51.6% of women 15+, 64.1% of populationNamibia: 54.9% of women 15+, 0.119% of populationNiger: 72.8% of women 15+, 98.1% of populationNigeria: 80.7% of women 15+, 56.1% of populationNicaragua: 51.3% of women 15+, 0.00459% of populationNetherlands: 62.7% of women 15+, 5.5% of populationNorway: 62.1% of women 15+, 4.11% of populationNepal: 27.5% of women 15+, 5.08% of populationNew Zealand: 66.1% of women 15+, 1.36% of populationOman: 30% of women 15+, 81.8% of populationPakistan: 24% of women 15+, 96.5% of populationPanama: 54.9% of women 15+, 0.0531% of populationPeru: 65% of women 15+, 0.0216% of populationPhilippines: 50.5% of women 15+, 6.46% of populationPapua New Guinea: 50.8% of women 15+, 0.0748% of populationPoland: 51.6% of women 15+, 0.00732% of populationPuerto Rico (US): 36.9% of women 15+, 0.108% of populationPortugal: 54.6% of women 15+, 0.409% of populationParaguay: 59% of women 15+, 0.0113% of populationWest Bank and Gaza: 18.9% of women 15+, 99% of populationQatar: 61.9% of women 15+, 75.9% of populationRomania: 41.8% of women 15+, 0.356% of populationRussian Federation: 54.5% of women 15+, 8.19% of populationRwanda: 57.3% of women 15+, 1.81% of populationSaudi Arabia: 33.6% of women 15+, 92.7% of populationSudan: 14.5% of women 15+, 98.9% of populationSenegal: 38.2% of women 15+, 97.6% of populationSingapore: 63.6% of women 15+, 16.1% of populationSolomon Islands: 82.3% of women 15+, 0.34% of populationSierra Leone: 51.6% of women 15+, 80.1% of populationEl Salvador: 49.1% of women 15+, 0.0035% of populationSomalia, Fed. Rep.: 20.7% of women 15+, 99.8% of populationSerbia: 52.6% of women 15+, 4.42% of populationSao Tome and Principe: 22.7% of women 15+, 0.0915% of populationSuriname: 44.9% of women 15+, 13.1% of populationSlovak Republic: 55.1% of women 15+, 0.0548% of populationSlovenia: 52.3% of women 15+, 1.61% of populationSweden: 61.5% of women 15+, 8.1% of populationEswatini: 48.5% of women 15+, 0.136% of populationSyrian Arab Republic: 12.7% of women 15+, 94.2% of populationChad: 47.3% of women 15+, 56.4% of populationTogo: 56.6% of women 15+, 16.1% of populationThailand: 59% of women 15+, 4.51% of populationTajikistan: 21.9% of women 15+, 98.9% of populationTurkmenistan: 38.2% of women 15+, 94.3% of populationTimor-Leste: 61.7% of women 15+, 0.257% of populationTonga: 42.3% of women 15+, 0.0605% of populationTrinidad and Tobago: 47.8% of women 15+, 5.46% of populationTunisia: 26.5% of women 15+, 99.3% of populationTurkiye: 37.1% of women 15+, 97.1% of populationTanzania: 80.3% of women 15+, 29.9% of populationUganda: 75.6% of women 15+, 11.4% of populationUkraine: 47.7% of women 15+, 0.568% of populationUruguay: 57.3% of women 15+, 0.0893% of populationUnited States: 56.3% of women 15+, 1.19% of populationUzbekistan: 41.2% of women 15+, 95.6% of populationSt. Vincent and the Grenadines: 59.2% of women 15+, 0.107% of populationVirgin Islands (U.S.): 52.8% of women 15+, 0.105% of populationViet Nam: 68.6% of women 15+, 0.0721% of populationVanuatu: 53.3% of women 15+, 0.0193% of populationSamoa: 30.7% of women 15+, 0.0253% of populationSouth Africa: 49.9% of women 15+, 1.6% of populationZambia: 56.4% of women 15+, 0.511% of populationZimbabwe: 62.2% of women 15+, 0.529% of populationAFGAZEBDIIRNIRQMDGNERNGANPLSLBSTPWSM

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

MethodrpCountries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted-0.5502.1e-15177
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted-0.3364.7e-6177
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income-0.5522.0e-15177
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income-0.3307.8e-6177

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 177 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: -0.002 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from -0.573 (without NER) to -0.540 (without IRN). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: NER (-0.021).

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

nr
East Asia & Pacific25-0.12
Europe & Central Asia48-0.20
Latin America & Caribbean29-0.24
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan22-0.61
Sub-Saharan Africa45-0.48

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

nr
Poorest third59-0.57
Middle third59-0.66
Richest third59-0.41

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
Christians106+0.13
Muslims49-0.58

By last european coloniser

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
France25-0.74
Never a European colony21-0.58
Spain19-0.67
United Kingdom55-0.55

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = -0.430 after dropping 9 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 0years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

Not enough history inside each country to look at this over time. That needs countries measured for several years in a row, and at least one of these measures is measured too rarely.

The data


% of women 15+
% of population		Years
Madagascar MDG82.9%1.16%2025, 2020
Solomon Islands SLB82.3%0.34%2025, 2020
Nigeria NGA80.7%56.1%2025, 2020
Tanzania TZA80.3%29.9%2025, 2020
Burundi BDI79.5%2.99%2025, 2020
Cambodia KHM77.4%2.04%2025, 2020
Mozambique MOZ77.1%19.4%2025, 2020
Uganda UGA75.6%11.4%2025, 2020
Benin BEN75.2%31.4%2025, 2020
Bolivia BOL72.9%0.0098%2025, 2020
Niger NER72.8%98.1%2025, 2020
Moldova MDA72.3%0.181%2025, 2020
Angola AGO72.2%0.256%2025, 2020
Liberia LBR72%12.7%2025, 2020
Bahamas, The BHS70.7%0.0858%2025, 2020

World Bank, World Development Indicators
Pew Research Center, Religious Composition by Country, 2010-2020. Pew Research Center bears no responsibility for the analyses or interpretations of the data presented here.
One of these measures is published under a licence that forbids changes. Values are shown exactly as published and must not be republished in a changed or rescaled form.

Sources

Female labor participation

Labor force participation rate, female (% of female population 15+)

International Labour Organization · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly

Muslim share

Share of the population identifying as Muslim

Pew Research Center · via Our World in Data · Pew Research Center terms of use, excerpts with attribution · updated decennial · comparable from 2010 only

The second largest religion. The three religion shares are parts of one total. So for any pair of them, more of one means less of the others. They are built from the same numbers, so they are bound to match, and the site flags this. Hindu, Buddhist, folk and other religions are not included, so that what is taken from Pew's dataset stays a small excerpt of it. No "better" direction is set.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2020–2025. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Female labor participation and Muslim share

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Female labor participation changes Muslim share, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.

More links with Female labor participation or Muslim share