Do Life satisfaction and Undernourishment go together across countries?

Across 148 countries the link before adjusting for anything is r = -0.68, on a scale from -1 (opposite) to +1 (in step). A version that uses only each country's rank gives -0.76.

Does the link hold within countries over time, not just across countries?

Comparing each country only with itself across 2011-2023, and setting aside what happened worldwide in each year, the link is -0.257 (142 countries, 1,651 country-years). Using year-to-year changes, it is -0.151.

Does Life satisfaction cause Undernourishment?

This analysis cannot answer that. It shows only that the two go together. A link between two country measures, adjusted or not, does not show that either one changes the other. Country figures also say nothing about individual people.

Life satisfaction vs. Undernourishment

Holds up after adjusting for income

Across 148 countries, Life satisfaction and Undernourishment rise and fall together at r = -0.68 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) shrinks it to -0.22 (q = 0.018, allowing for the many pairs tested). Much of the first figure is that both measures rise with national income, but a weak negative link remains.

Comparing countries across the middle half of undernourishment, 2.5% to 12.9% of population, life satisfaction is worse by 0.794 points at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 0.226 points.

Link before adjusting (r)-0.683p = 1.1e-21 · 148 countries

After adjusting for national income-0.221p = 0.007 · likely range [-0.37, -0.06]

p, allowing for regions0.007standard error 0.054 · 7 regions

Check for luck (q)0.018across 12,497 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Life satisfaction · score (0-10)link with income +0.81 · proxy

Undernourishment · % of populationlink with income -0.83 · proxy

Both of these rise and fall closely with national income, so a strong link between them before adjusting was close to certain. Read the adjusted figure, not the first one.

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

Method	r	p	Countries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted	-0.683	1.1e-21	148
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted	-0.763	1.8e-29	148
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income	-0.221	0.007	148
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income	-0.242	0.003	148

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 148 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.462 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from -0.273 (without SOM) to -0.185 (without BWA). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: SOM (-0.052).

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

	n	r
East Asia & Pacific	13	-0.17
Europe & Central Asia	48	+0.00
Latin America & Caribbean	23	-0.82
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan	19	-0.05
Sub-Saharan Africa	39	-0.21

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

	n	r
Poorest third	50	-0.25
Middle third	49	-0.40
Richest third	49	-0.01

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

	n	r
Christians	88	-0.32
Muslims	43	-0.22

By last european coloniser

	n	r
France	24	-0.42
Never a European colony	20	-0.43
Spain	18	+0.07
United Kingdom	39	-0.05

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = -0.329 after dropping 11 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 13years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

The link also shows up within countries over time (r = -0.257). It holds even when looking only at changes from one year to the next (r = -0.151). This is the strongest kind of evidence available here: it holds when each country is compared only with itself, and it is not just a product of shared trends.

Across countries (adjusted)-0.221for comparison

Within countries-0.254each country vs itself

…and vs the same year elsewhere-0.257q = 0.006 · 142 countries

Year-on-year changes-0.151q = 0.012

Read with care.

Almost all of this indicator's variation is between countries, not within them, so the within-country estimate rests on a small part of the data.

1,651 country-years (one country in one year), 142 countries, 2011–2023, about 12 years each on average. Share of the variation that happens within countries over time: 5% for Life satisfaction, 9% for Undernourishment. The margins of error allow for each country appearing many times, and for each year’s value being close to the year before.

Year-to-year changes are a cautious test, not a final answer. Looking only at changes from one year to the next removes each country’s own trends. But it also makes measurement mistakes louder, which pulls the results toward zero. A near-zero result here is weak evidence of no link, not proof.

With one measure years behind the other

Same year (lag 0): -0.257. A peak away from zero does not show which comes first. These series change slowly — this year’s value is close to last year’s. That makes the curve smooth and nearly symmetric, whatever produced the data. Even a sharp peak at one lag (a gap of some years) would not prove that one measure changes the other.

The data

	score (0-10)	% of population	Years
Finland FIN	7.76	2.5%	2025, 2023
Iceland ISL	7.54	2.5%	2025, 2023
Denmark DNK	7.54	2.5%	2025, 2023
Costa Rica CRI	7.44	2.5%	2025, 2023
Sweden SWE	7.25	2.5%	2025, 2023
Norway NOR	7.24	2.5%	2025, 2023
Netherlands NLD	7.22	2.5%	2025, 2023
Israel ISR	7.19	2.5%	2025, 2023
Luxembourg LUX	7.06	2.5%	2025, 2023
Switzerland CHE	7.02	2.5%	2025, 2023
New Zealand NZL	7	2.5%	2025, 2023
Mexico MEX	6.97	2.7%	2025, 2023
Ireland IRL	6.93	2.5%	2025, 2023
Belgium BEL	6.93	2.5%	2025, 2023
Australia AUS	6.92	2.5%	2025, 2023

Helliwell, J. et al., World Happiness Report; underlying data Gallup World Poll
World Bank, World Development Indicators

Sources

Life satisfaction

Life satisfaction (Cantril ladder score)

Gallup / World Happiness Report · via Our World in Data · CC BY 4.0 · updated annual

The national average answer to the "Cantril ladder" question: "Please imagine a ladder, with steps numbered from 0 at the bottom to 10 at the top...". It is a direct survey measure, not a combined index. The six factors the World Happiness Report uses to explain the ladder are not part of it. Values are usually three-year rolling averages of the Gallup World Poll. So each year's value overlaps with the next, and they are not separate readings.

Undernourishment

Prevalence of undernourishment (% of population)

Food and Agriculture Organization · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly

Estimated from the food supply and how it is shared out, not by asking anyone. It is the FAO's model of how many people get less food energy than they need. The survey-based food insecurity measure below is treated as measuring the same thing. So their pair reads as two tools agreeing, not as a finding.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2011–2025. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Life satisfaction and Undernourishment

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Life satisfaction changes Undernourishment, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.