Across 184 countries, DTP3 immunisation and Education score rise and fall together at r = +0.56 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). Comparing only countries with similar income (GDP per person) shrinks it to +0.29 (q = 0.023, allowing for the many pairs tested). Much of the first figure is that both measures rise with national income, but a weak positive link remains.
Comparing countries across the middle half of dtp3 immunisation, 81% to 96% of children aged 12-23 months, education score is better by 0.431 typical gaps at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 0.15 typical gaps.
Link before adjusting (r)+0.558p = 1.8e-16 · 184 countries
After adjusting for national income+0.288p = 7.7e-5 · likely range [+0.15, +0.42]
p, allowing for regions0.001standard error 0.050 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.023across 12,497 pairs
How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.
DTP3 immunisation · % of children aged 12-23 monthslink with income +0.53 · moderate
Education score · typical gaps (standard deviations)link with income +0.81 · proxy
“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.
Every country as a dot
best-fit line line after adjusting
Four ways to measure the link
Method
r
p
Countries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted
+0.558
1.8e-16
184
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted
+0.493
1.2e-12
184
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income
+0.288
7.7e-5
184
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income
+0.139
0.061
184
The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 184 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.270 (a minus sign means it grew).
How solid is it?
Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from +0.261 (without CAF) to +0.308 (without BOL). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: CAF (-0.027).
Within each region
Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.
n
r
East Asia & Pacific
29
+0.53
Europe & Central Asia
50
+0.15
Latin America & Caribbean
30
+0.18
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan
21
+0.36
Sub-Saharan Africa
46
+0.34
By income third
If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.
n
r
Poorest third
62
+0.38
Middle third
61
+0.24
Richest third
61
+0.03
By largest religious group
Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.
n
r
Christians
107
+0.33
Muslims
48
+0.17
By last european coloniser
Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.
n
r
France
24
+0.25
Never a European colony
21
+0.21
Spain
20
+0.15
United Kingdom
62
+0.30
Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = +0.264 after dropping 10 countries.
Two series, one country
Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.
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Over time, within countries
Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 0years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.
Not enough history inside each country to look at this over time. That needs countries measured for several years in a row, and at least one of these measures is measured too rarely.
The data
% of children aged 12-23 months
typical gaps (standard deviations)
Years
St. Vincent and the Grenadines VCT
99%
0.91
2024, 2022
Turkiye TUR
99%
1.03
2024, 2023
Tonga TON
99%
0.921
2024, 2023
Portugal PRT
99%
1.02
2024, 2023
Oman OMN
99%
0.293
2024
Naoero NRU
99%
0.496
2024, 2023
Maldives MDV
99%
0.427
2024, 2023
Luxembourg LUX
99%
0.66
2024
St. Lucia LCA
99%
0.462
2024, 2023
Kuwait KWT
99%
0.25
2024, 2020
Japan JPN
99%
1.04
2024, 2023
Jamaica JAM
99%
0.446
2024, 2023
Hungary HUN
99%
0.83
2024
Costa Rica CRI
99%
0.629
2024, 2023
Brunei Darussalam BRN
99%
0.499
2024, 2023
World Bank, World Development Indicators uis; undp_hdr; wdi
Immunization, DPT (% of children ages 12-23 months)
WHO and UNICEF · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly
Three doses of the diphtheria, tetanus and whooping cough (pertussis) vaccine, the standard measure of a routine vaccination system. Measles coverage is published the same way and moves with it almost exactly, so only one of the two is here.
PlaceStats · via PlaceStats · Derived work; each member keeps its own licence · updated recomputed with the panel
The average of 10 measures from 3 publishers. Each measure is first put on a common scale: 0 is the average country in an average year, and 1 is a typical gap between countries (a standard deviation). Each is turned so that higher is better. Measures are averaged within each publisher first, so a publisher with many measures does not count for more. Members: Primary completion, Expected schooling, Mean years of schooling, Adult literacy, Pupil-teacher ratio, Primary enrollment, Out of school, primary, Secondary enrollment, Tertiary enrollment, Researchers.
How this was computed
Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2010–2025. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore DTP3 immunisation and Education score
This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that DTP3 immunisation changes Education score, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.
More links with DTP3 immunisation or Education score