Corruption Perceptions Index vs. Out-of-pocket health spending
Holds up after adjusting for income
Across 172 countries, Corruption Perceptions Index and Out-of-pocket health spending rise and fall together at r = -0.55 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). It holds up almost unchanged when only countries with similar income (GDP per person) are compared (r = -0.42, q = 0.040, allowing for the many pairs tested).
Comparing countries across the middle half of corruption perceptions index, 29.5 to 57 points, out-of-pocket health spending is better by 14.9% of health spending at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 14.5% of health spending.
Link before adjusting (r)-0.551p = 4.6e-15 · 172 countries
After adjusting for national income-0.417p = 1.4e-8 · likely range [-0.53, -0.28]
p, allowing for regions0.003standard error 0.089 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.040across 12,497 pairs
How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.
Corruption Perceptions Index · index (0-100, higher = cleaner)link with income +0.72 · high
Out-of-pocket health spending · % of health spendinglink with income -0.34 · moderate
“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.
Every country as a dot
best-fit line line after adjusting
Four ways to measure the link
Method
r
p
Countries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted
-0.551
4.6e-15
172
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted
-0.561
1.2e-15
172
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income
-0.417
1.4e-8
172
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income
-0.410
2.5e-8
172
The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 172 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.135 (a minus sign means it grew).
How solid is it?
Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from -0.434 (without LBY) to -0.396 (without TKM). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: TKM (+0.021).
Within each region
Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.
n
r
East Asia & Pacific
21
-0.70
Europe & Central Asia
48
-0.14
Latin America & Caribbean
28
-0.10
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan
21
-0.20
Sub-Saharan Africa
46
-0.35
By income third
If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.
n
r
Poorest third
58
-0.57
Middle third
57
-0.24
Richest third
57
-0.28
By largest religious group
Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.
n
r
Christians
103
-0.37
Muslims
48
-0.47
By last european coloniser
Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.
n
r
France
25
-0.27
Never a European colony
21
-0.33
Spain
19
-0.43
United Kingdom
55
-0.34
Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = -0.417 after dropping 0 countries.
Two series, one country
Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.
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Over time, within countries
Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 13years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.
Within countries over time, there is no link that is clearly more than chance (r = -0.073, comparing each country only with itself over the years, and each year only with the same year elsewhere). Whatever the cross-country picture shows, countries whose corruption perceptions index moved did not tend to see their out-of-pocket health spending move with it.
Across countries (adjusted)-0.417for comparison
Within countries-0.076each country vs itself
…and vs the same year elsewhere-0.073q = 0.354 · 176 countries
Year-on-year changes-0.050q = 0.165
Read with care.
Almost all of this indicator's variation is between countries, not within them, so the within-country estimate rests on a small part of the data.
2,087 country-years (one country in one year), 176 countries, 2012–2024, about 12 years each on average. Share of the variation that happens within countries over time: 2% for Corruption Perceptions Index, 5% for Out-of-pocket health spending. The margins of error allow for each country appearing many times, and for each year’s value being close to the year before.
Year-to-year changes are a cautious test, not a final answer. Looking only at changes from one year to the next removes each country’s own trends. But it also makes measurement mistakes louder, which pulls the results toward zero. A near-zero result here is weak evidence of no link, not proof.
With one measure years behind the other
Same year (lag 0): -0.073. A peak away from zero does not show which comes first. These series change slowly — this year’s value is close to last year’s. That makes the curve smooth and nearly symmetric, whatever produced the data. Even a sharp peak at one lag (a gap of some years) would not prove that one measure changes the other.
The largest value on this curve (+0.13 at lag -6) is higher than the same-year one by 0.06. That gap is not a finding. It is the largest of 18 closely related estimates, and picking the biggest of many tests always makes it look bigger. That is exactly why nothing on this site is ranked or chosen by lag.
The data
index (0-100, higher = cleaner)
% of health spending
Years
Denmark DNK
90
13.9%
2024
Finland FIN
88
14.1%
2024, 2023
Singapore SGP
84
25.4%
2024, 2023
New Zealand NZL
83
12.7%
2024
Norway NOR
81
13.7%
2024, 2023
Luxembourg LUX
81
8.5%
2024
Switzerland CHE
81
22%
2024, 2023
Sweden SWE
80
13.4%
2024
Netherlands NLD
78
11.8%
2024
Iceland ISL
77
14.9%
2024
Ireland IRL
77
10.6%
2024
Australia AUS
77
15.8%
2024, 2023
Uruguay URY
76
17.1%
2024, 2023
Estonia EST
76
21.4%
2024
Germany DEU
75
10.7%
2024
Transparency International, Corruption Perceptions Index World Bank, World Development Indicators One of these measures is published under a licence that forbids changes. Values are shown exactly as published and must not be republished in a changed or rescaled form.
Transparency International · via Our World in Data · CC BY-ND 4.0 · updated annual · comparable from 2012 only
Measures how corrupt the public sector is believed to be, based on 13 surveys of experts and business people. Some of the same surveys feed the Worldwide Governance Indicators' Control of Corruption measure, so the two share ingredients.
Out-of-pocket expenditure (% of current health expenditure)
World Health Organization Global Health Expenditure Database · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly
The share of a country's health spending paid by patients themselves when they get care. Health spending as a share of GDP is already on the site and shows how much is spent. This shows who pays.
How this was computed
Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2020–2024. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 12,497 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated DYB 2024. How the country data works · explore Corruption Perceptions Index and Out-of-pocket health spending
This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Corruption Perceptions Index changes Out-of-pocket health spending, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.
More links with Corruption Perceptions Index or Out-of-pocket health spending