placestats

Hours worked (PWT) vs. Physicians

Holds up after adjusting for income

Across 126 countries, Hours worked (PWT) and Physicians rise and fall together at r = -0.48 (on a scale from −1 to +1, where 0 means no link). It holds up almost unchanged when only countries with similar income (GDP per person) are compared (r = -0.35, q = 0.012, allowing for the many pairs tested).

Comparing countries across the middle half of hours worked (PWT), 1,644 to 2,177 hours per year, physicians is worse by 1.37 per 1,000 people at the top of that range than the bottom. Comparing only countries with similar national income, the gap is 0.655 per 1,000 people.

Link before adjusting (r)-0.480p = 1.3e-8 · 126 countries
After adjusting for national income-0.345p = 8.1e-5 · likely range [-0.49, -0.18]
p, allowing for regions0.000standard error 0.049 · 7 regions
Check for luck (q)0.012across 18,622 pairs

How to read these.r runs from −1 (one goes up as the other goes down) to +1 (they rise together), and 0 means no link. Adjusting for national income means comparing countries with the same GDP per person, so differences in wealth can’t explain the link. Income is used in percentage terms, since an extra $1,000 means more to a poor country than to a rich one. p is how likely a link this strong would be if there were really none. Below 0.05 means it is unlikely to be chance. Very small values are written in short form: 1.1e-32 means a decimal point followed by 31 zeros and then 11, so very close to zero. The likely range is where the true figure probably lies, and a range that crosses zero means the link could easily be chance. Countries in the same region tend to resemble each other, so the third figure allows for that, which gives a fairer p. The standard error is the typical size of the error in r. Finally, testing this many pairs means some will look strong by luck alone. A q below 0.05 means this link is unlikely to be one of those.

Hours worked (PWT) · hours per yearlink with income -0.40 · moderate
Physicians · per 1,000 peoplelink with income +0.85 · proxy

“Link with income” is how closely each measure tracks GDP per person across countries, from −1 to +1.

Every country as a dot

Hours worked (PWT) · hours per year →Physicians · per 1,000 people →1,3352,6580.0386.58Angola: 2,115 hours per year, 0.244 per 1,000 peopleAlbania: 2,152 hours per year, 1.88 per 1,000 peopleUnited Arab Emirates: 2,514 hours per year, 2.99 per 1,000 peopleArgentina: 1,612 hours per year, 5.11 per 1,000 peopleArmenia: 1,976 hours per year, 3.36 per 1,000 peopleAustralia: 1,611 hours per year, 4.09 per 1,000 peopleAustria: 1,438 hours per year, 5.51 per 1,000 peopleAzerbaijan: 1,791 hours per year, 3.19 per 1,000 peopleBelgium: 1,593 hours per year, 3.57 per 1,000 peopleBurkina Faso: 2,356 hours per year, 0.148 per 1,000 peopleBangladesh: 2,383 hours per year, 0.722 per 1,000 peopleBulgaria: 1,659 hours per year, 4.33 per 1,000 peopleBahrain: 2,052 hours per year, 0.741 per 1,000 peopleBosnia and Herzegovina: 2,122 hours per year, 2.58 per 1,000 peopleBelarus: 1,875 hours per year, 4.72 per 1,000 peopleBolivia: 1,968 hours per year, 1.28 per 1,000 peopleBrazil: 1,994 hours per year, 2.36 per 1,000 peopleBotswana: 2,258 hours per year, 0.379 per 1,000 peopleCanada: 1,731 hours per year, 2.82 per 1,000 peopleSwitzerland: 1,529 hours per year, 4.48 per 1,000 peopleChile: 1,950 hours per year, 3.33 per 1,000 peopleChina: 2,328 hours per year, 3.11 per 1,000 peopleCote d'Ivoire: 2,103 hours per year, 0.166 per 1,000 peopleCameroon: 2,181 hours per year, 0.136 per 1,000 peopleCongo, Dem. Rep.: 1,841 hours per year, 0.208 per 1,000 peopleCongo, Rep.: 2,534 hours per year, 0.173 per 1,000 peopleColombia: 2,471 hours per year, 2.54 per 1,000 peopleCosta Rica: 2,177 hours per year, 2.69 per 1,000 peopleCyprus: 1,840 hours per year, 3.56 per 1,000 peopleCzechia: 1,774 hours per year, 4.35 per 1,000 peopleGermany: 1,335 hours per year, 4.53 per 1,000 peopleDenmark: 1,380 hours per year, 4.5 per 1,000 peopleDominican Republic: 2,072 hours per year, 2.43 per 1,000 peopleAlgeria: 2,232 hours per year, 1.66 per 1,000 peopleEcuador: 1,594 hours per year, 2.31 per 1,000 peopleEgypt, Arab Rep.: 2,369 hours per year, 0.671 per 1,000 peopleSpain: 1,638 hours per year, 4.29 per 1,000 peopleEstonia: 1,606 hours per year, 3.47 per 1,000 peopleEthiopia: 1,599 hours per year, 0.143 per 1,000 peopleFinland: 1,497 hours per year, 3.61 per 1,000 peopleFrance: 1,487 hours per year, 3.28 per 1,000 peopleGabon: 2,174 hours per year, 0.521 per 1,000 peopleUnited Kingdom: 1,523 hours per year, 3.3 per 1,000 peopleGeorgia: 1,932 hours per year, 5.64 per 1,000 peopleGhana: 1,656 hours per year, 0.266 per 1,000 peopleGreece: 1,893 hours per year, 6.58 per 1,000 peopleGuatemala: 2,151 hours per year, 1.28 per 1,000 peopleCroatia: 1,974 hours per year, 3.91 per 1,000 peopleHungary: 1,668 hours per year, 3.46 per 1,000 peopleIndonesia: 1,958 hours per year, 0.524 per 1,000 peopleIndia: 2,383 hours per year, 0.723 per 1,000 peopleIreland: 1,654 hours per year, 3.88 per 1,000 peopleIran, Islamic Rep.: 2,246 hours per year, 1.81 per 1,000 peopleIraq: 1,583 hours per year, 1.02 per 1,000 peopleIceland: 1,452 hours per year, 4.37 per 1,000 peopleIsrael: 1,890 hours per year, 3.8 per 1,000 peopleItaly: 1,701 hours per year, 4.19 per 1,000 peopleJamaica: 1,963 hours per year, 0.46 per 1,000 peopleJordan: 2,483 hours per year, 2.85 per 1,000 peopleJapan: 1,654 hours per year, 2.65 per 1,000 peopleKazakhstan: 1,975 hours per year, 3.75 per 1,000 peopleKenya: 2,035 hours per year, 0.289 per 1,000 peopleKyrgyz Republic: 1,830 hours per year, 1.57 per 1,000 peopleCambodia: 2,389 hours per year, 0.211 per 1,000 peopleKorea, Rep.: 1,910 hours per year, 2.61 per 1,000 peopleKuwait: 2,318 hours per year, 2.27 per 1,000 peopleLebanon: 2,412 hours per year, 2.68 per 1,000 peopleSri Lanka: 2,053 hours per year, 1.14 per 1,000 peopleLithuania: 1,640 hours per year, 4.47 per 1,000 peopleLuxembourg: 1,452 hours per year, 2.98 per 1,000 peopleLatvia: 1,625 hours per year, 3.4 per 1,000 peopleMorocco: 2,174 hours per year, 0.74 per 1,000 peopleMoldova: 1,989 hours per year, 4.02 per 1,000 peopleMadagascar: 1,799 hours per year, 0.172 per 1,000 peopleMexico: 1,629 hours per year, 2.59 per 1,000 peopleNorth Macedonia: 1,949 hours per year, 2.94 per 1,000 peopleMali: 2,243 hours per year, 0.188 per 1,000 peopleMalta: 1,848 hours per year, 4.51 per 1,000 peopleMyanmar: 2,197 hours per year, 0.757 per 1,000 peopleMozambique: 1,507 hours per year, 0.175 per 1,000 peopleMauritius: 1,990 hours per year, 1.44 per 1,000 peopleMalawi: 1,596 hours per year, 0.054 per 1,000 peopleMalaysia: 2,308 hours per year, 2.34 per 1,000 peopleNamibia: 2,184 hours per year, 0.553 per 1,000 peopleNiger: 2,069 hours per year, 0.038 per 1,000 peopleNigeria: 2,062 hours per year, 0.38 per 1,000 peopleNetherlands: 1,439 hours per year, 3.88 per 1,000 peopleNorway: 1,412 hours per year, 4.97 per 1,000 peopleNew Zealand: 1,708 hours per year, 3.61 per 1,000 peopleOman: 2,266 hours per year, 1.99 per 1,000 peoplePakistan: 2,471 hours per year, 1.16 per 1,000 peoplePeru: 2,143 hours per year, 1.69 per 1,000 peoplePhilippines: 2,096 hours per year, 0.792 per 1,000 peoplePoland: 1,807 hours per year, 4.03 per 1,000 peoplePortugal: 1,735 hours per year, 5.85 per 1,000 peopleParaguay: 2,123 hours per year, 3.89 per 1,000 peopleQatar: 2,435 hours per year, 3.02 per 1,000 peopleRomania: 1,826 hours per year, 3.63 per 1,000 peopleRussian Federation: 2,087 hours per year, 5.11 per 1,000 peopleRwanda: 1,584 hours per year, 0.09 per 1,000 peopleSaudi Arabia: 2,125 hours per year, 3.41 per 1,000 peopleSudan: 2,658 hours per year, 0.25 per 1,000 peopleSenegal: 2,335 hours per year, 0.109 per 1,000 peopleSingapore: 2,283 hours per year, 2.83 per 1,000 peopleSerbia: 1,995 hours per year, 3.1 per 1,000 peopleSlovak Republic: 1,621 hours per year, 3.7 per 1,000 peopleSlovenia: 1,588 hours per year, 3.37 per 1,000 peopleSweden: 1,432 hours per year, 4.41 per 1,000 peopleSyrian Arab Republic: 1,621 hours per year, 1.52 per 1,000 peopleChad: 1,585 hours per year, 0.085 per 1,000 peopleThailand: 2,177 hours per year, 0.541 per 1,000 peopleTajikistan: 2,134 hours per year, 1.87 per 1,000 peopleTurkmenistan: 2,179 hours per year, 1.93 per 1,000 peopleTrinidad and Tobago: 1,610 hours per year, 4.16 per 1,000 peopleTunisia: 2,288 hours per year, 1.31 per 1,000 peopleTurkiye: 1,747 hours per year, 2.24 per 1,000 peopleTanzania: 2,129 hours per year, 0.134 per 1,000 peopleUganda: 2,128 hours per year, 0.191 per 1,000 peopleUkraine: 2,045 hours per year, 3.53 per 1,000 peopleUruguay: 1,481 hours per year, 4.67 per 1,000 peopleUnited States: 1,789 hours per year, 3.68 per 1,000 peopleUzbekistan: 2,099 hours per year, 2.81 per 1,000 peopleViet Nam: 2,160 hours per year, 1.11 per 1,000 peopleSouth Africa: 2,181 hours per year, 0.794 per 1,000 peopleZambia: 2,200 hours per year, 0.324 per 1,000 peopleZimbabwe: 2,311 hours per year, 0.136 per 1,000 peopleAREAUTCOGDEUGRCKHMMOZNORRUSRWASDNTCD

best-fit line line after adjusting

Four ways to measure the link

MethodrpCountries
Standard (Pearson), not adjusted-0.4801.3e-8126
By rank (Spearman), not adjusted-0.4761.8e-8126
Standard (Pearson), adjusted for national income-0.3458.1e-5126
By rank (Spearman), adjusted for national income-0.2530.004126

The rank version uses only each country’s place in line, from lowest to highest, so a few extreme countries count for less. The adjusted and unadjusted versions use the same 126 countries: those that report both measures and GDP per person. So the gap between them comes from the adjustment, not from a change in which countries are counted. Drop in the size of r after adjusting: +0.134 (a minus sign means it grew).

How solid is it?

Leaving out one country at a time, r ranges from -0.366 (without JOR) to -0.326 (without SGP). The bar above shows that range on a scale from −1 to +1, with the solid line at the full result. The single country that moves r most: JOR (-0.021).

Within each region

Countries are not separate, unrelated cases, and neighbors share a lot. A link that holds inside each region is far more believable than one that shows up only when comparing regions.

nr
East Asia & Pacific13-0.36
Europe & Central Asia47+0.04
Latin America & Caribbean15-0.38
Middle East, North Africa, Afghanistan & Pakistan18-0.07
Sub-Saharan Africa28-0.14

By income third

If the link shows up only in the richest third of countries, it is a feature of rich countries, not a general pattern.

nr
Poorest third42+0.03
Middle third42-0.42
Richest third42-0.43

By largest religious group

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
Christians74-0.21
Muslims36-0.00

By last European coloniser

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
France16-0.21
Never a European colony17-0.03
Spain14-0.42
United Kingdom35-0.25

By official ideology

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
Nationalist20-0.58
No strong official ideology85-0.32

By party system

Countries grouped by a label they share, such as main religion, rather than by a number. Groups of fewer than twelve countries are not shown. These groups differ in income, region and history all at once. So a gap between them is a place to start asking questions, not an answer.

nr
A few parties banned18-0.19
No parties banned93-0.35

Without outliers (countries far outside the middle half of countries on either measure, by more than one and a half times the width of that middle half): r = -0.345 after dropping 0 countries.

Two series, one country

Both measures over the years for one country you pick. The two charts are stacked so they share only the years along the bottom.

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Over time, within countries

Everything above compares countries with each other at one moment. This section compares each country only with itself over 34years. So a link here can’t come from anything about a country that stays the same, such as its history, geography, institutions or culture.

Within countries over time, there is no link that is clearly more than chance (r = -0.072, comparing each country only with itself over the years, and each year only with the same year elsewhere). Whatever the cross-country picture shows, countries whose hours worked (PWT) moved did not tend to see their physicians move with it.

Across countries (adjusted)-0.345for comparison
Within countries-0.397each country vs itself
…and vs the same year elsewhere-0.072q = 0.399 · 124 countries
Year-on-year changes+0.021q = 0.693
Read with care.
  • Almost all of this indicator's variation is between countries, not within them, so the within-country estimate rests on a small part of the data.
  • Much of the within-country association disappears once shared global year effects are removed, which points to a common worldwide trend rather than a country-level relationship.

2,507 country-years (one country in one year), 124 countries, 1990–2023, about 20 years each on average. Share of the variation that happens within countries over time: 7% for Hours worked (PWT), 11% for Physicians. The margins of error allow for each country appearing many times, and for each year’s value being close to the year before.

Year-to-year changes are a cautious test, not a final answer. Looking only at changes from one year to the next removes each country’s own trends. But it also makes measurement mistakes louder, which pulls the results toward zero. A near-zero result here is weak evidence of no link, not proof.

With one measure years behind the other

0.20−0.2-100+10years Physicians trails Hours worked (PWT) →lag -10: r = -0.110 (n = 1,905)lag -9: r = -0.086 (n = 1,960)lag -8: r = -0.083 (n = 2,028)lag -7: r = -0.086 (n = 2,104)lag -6: r = -0.088 (n = 2,183)lag -5: r = -0.073 (n = 2,284)lag -4: r = -0.078 (n = 2,351)lag -3: r = -0.069 (n = 2,416)lag -2: r = -0.069 (n = 2,473)lag -1: r = -0.071 (n = 2,532)lag +0: r = -0.072 (n = 2,507)lag +1: r = -0.073 (n = 2,412)lag +2: r = -0.068 (n = 2,324)lag +3: r = -0.064 (n = 2,229)lag +4: r = -0.056 (n = 2,135)lag +5: r = -0.043 (n = 2,038)lag +6: r = -0.010 (n = 1,936)lag +7: r = 0.006 (n = 1,843)lag +8: r = 0.024 (n = 1,743)lag +9: r = 0.032 (n = 1,653)lag +10: r = 0.031 (n = 1,550)

Same year (lag 0): -0.072. A peak away from zero does not show which comes first. These series change slowly — this year’s value is close to last year’s. That makes the curve smooth and nearly symmetric, whatever produced the data. Even a sharp peak at one lag (a gap of some years) would not prove that one measure changes the other.

This curve peaks at the edge of the window (lag -10), so it is still drifting where the search stops. That pattern usually reflects a slow trend left over in the data, not a link with real timing. The peak value should not be read as the “true” link at the right lag.

The data


hours per year
per 1,000 people		Years
Sudan SDN2,6580.252023, 2017
Congo, Rep. COG2,5340.1732023, 2022
United Arab Emirates ARE2,5142.992023
Jordan JOR2,4832.852023, 2022
Pakistan PAK2,4711.162023, 2021
Colombia COL2,4712.542023
Qatar QAT2,4353.022023
Lebanon LBN2,4122.682023, 2020
Cambodia KHM2,3890.2112023, 2019
Bangladesh BGD2,3830.7222023
India IND2,3830.7232023, 2020
Egypt, Arab Rep. EGY2,3690.6712023, 2020
Burkina Faso BFA2,3560.1482023, 2022
Senegal SEN2,3350.1092023
China CHN2,3283.112023, 2022

Feenstra, Robert C., Robert Inklaar and Marcel P. Timmer (2015), "The Next Generation of the Penn World Table", American Economic Review, 105(10), 3150-3182, www.ggdc.net/pwt. Data: Penn World Table version 11.0, Groningen Growth and Development Centre, doi:10.34894/FABVLR.
World Bank, World Development Indicators

Sources

Hours worked (PWT)

Average annual hours worked per person engaged (Penn World Table)

Groningen Growth and Development Centre, University of Groningen · via DataverseNL · CC BY 4.0 · updated irregular (new versions every few years)

Hours actually worked in a year, averaged over everyone with a job, including the self-employed and part-timers. It measures the same thing as the OECD hours measure, and for countries in both the two mostly agree. This one is kept because it reaches much further: about 130 countries each year from 2010 to 2023, where the OECD series has 38 countries and stops in 2016. Before 2000 it covers mainly rich countries. No "better" direction is set.

Physicians

Physicians (per 1,000 people)

World Health Organization · CC BY 4.0 · updated quarterly

Reported irregularly, so the latest value in the time window used is from a different year for different countries. Hospital beds, already on the site, have no "better" direction, since more beds is not plainly better. More doctors is closer to plainly better, so a direction is set on that basis.

How this was computed

Data used: most recent value in 2010-2025; values come from 2017–2023. To adjust for income, each measure is first predicted from GDP per person (in percentage terms, on a log scale) with a straight-line fit. Only what is left over is then compared. This is called a partial correlation. The line is drawn the standard way (ordinary least squares), which picks the line that comes closest to all the countries at once. The error margins allow for countries in the same region resembling each other, using 7 World Bank regions. The q-value corrects for testing all 18,622 pairs at once, using the Benjamini–Hochberg method. Underlying data last updated V-Dem v16; V-Party v2. How the country data works · explore Hours worked (PWT) and Physicians

This page shows that two measures go together. It does not show that Hours worked (PWT) changes Physicians, or the reverse. These figures also describe countries, not individual people. See the ecological fallacy.

More links with Hours worked (PWT) or Physicians